The Relationship between 
sistence in School and 
Home Conditions 



THESIS 

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 

DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION 

IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE 

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 

I915 



BY 



CHARLES ELMER HOLLEY 

A.B. University of Illinois, 1912 
A.M. University of Illinois, 1913 



Reprinted from 

The Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society 

FOR the Study of Education 

1916 



J 



The Relationship between Per- 
sistence in School and 
Home Conditions 



THESIS 

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 

DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION 

IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE 

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 

I915 



BY 

CHARLES ELMER HOLLEY 

A.B. University of Illinois, igi2 
A.M. University of Illinois, 1913 



Reprinted from 

The Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society 

FOR the Study of Education 

1916 






Copyright 1916 By 
Guy M. Whipple 



All Rights Reserved 



Published April 1916 



«$,S: 



Composed and Printed By 

The University of Chicago Press 

Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. 



THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL 
AND HOME CONDITIONS^ 



CHARLES ELMER HOLLEY 
Ohio Wesleyan University 



PART I 

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT 

THE PROBLEM 

This study is concerned primarily with the qualitative analysis of 
the relationships which exist between the schooling of children and their 
home conditions. It is concerned secondarily with a rough determina- 
tion of the relative importance of the hereditary and the environmental 
factors involved in these relationships. 

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE STUDY 

The study is an outgrowth of a social survey of the Decatur, Illinois, 
high school made by the writer during the school year of 191 2-13. In 
making this survey a large amount of data was secured, most of which 
proved to be of relatively little importance, but among the many facts 
there were a few which suggested family tendencies in the matter of 
educating children. Some of the famiHes gave all the older children a 
high-school education, while other families, of similar size and age- 
composition, did not have one child who had completed the high-school 
work. All the families having two or more children no longer in the 
pubHc school were selected and examined. There proved to be 198 such 
families, containing 642 older children, 334 of whom had secured a high- 
school education. A further examination showed that 40 per cent of 
the 198 families furnished 72 per cent of those who had finished the high 
school, and 30 per cent of the famiHes furnished 57 per cent of those who 

^ This study was accepted as the dissertation for the doctorate of philosophy in 
education by the Graduate School of the University of Illinois. The writer wishes 
to acknowledge his indebtedness for counsel and suggestions given by Dr. W. C. 
Bagley and Dr. L. D. Coffman. Further, many useful suggestions were received 
from Dr. G. M. Whipple, Dr. C. H. Johnston, and the graduate students in education. 

9 



lO 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



had not finished the high school. This difference suggested that there 
must be corresponding differences in the homes which might be ascer- 
tained. Data were secured and it was found that these two groups of 
homes differed markedly with respect to economic, educational, and 
social conditions. 

Three years ago Dr. J. K. Van Denburg published the results of an 
investigation conducted in the New York City schools. He found that 
"on the whole, the economic status of these pupils (so far as it is shown 
by monthly rental) seems to be only a slight factor in the determination 
of length of stay in the high schools. The one most marked influence 
seems to be that the superior economic status in girls leads to a longer 
stay in spite of failure to progress at the 'normal' rate."^ 

At another place Dr. Van Denburg shows^ (Table I) the percentages 
of the different rental groups^ who graduated from the high school which 

TABLE I 

Percentage Graduating, Classified according to 
Rental Groups 



Amount 


Graduates 


Total 
Entering 


Percentage 
Graduating 


Boys 

Not specified 

$ 8 to $17 


22 

9 
8 

4 

40 

14 
10 

4 






76 

34 
48 


II. 8 


$18 to $27 

$28 and up 


23s 
8-3 


Girls 

Not specified 

$ 8 to $17 




99 
71 
6S 


14. 1 


$18 to $27 


14.0 


$28 and up 


6.1 







they entered four years earlier. He, however, has no record of those 
who left the pubhc schools and went to private schools, a group mentioned 
as a factor of some importance. Hence the group " 28 and up," would 

' Causes of the Elimination of Pupils in Public Secondary Schools (New York : 
Published by Teachers College, 19 12), p. 113. 

= Ibid., p. 134. 

3 A rental group is a group of families which paid specified amounts of rent per 
month. All the families selected were divided by Van Denburg into three rental 
groups: (i) those paying $8 to $17 per month, (2) those paying $18 to $27 per month, 
and (3) those paying $28 or more per month. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS ii 

have to be augmented by an unknown quantity to represent the true 
percentage of those who received the equivalent of four years in the 
pubHc high school. It is conceivable that this unknown quantity would 
be large enough to show a definite relationship for the boys between 
economic status and persistence in school. With the girls the case 
would not be so clear, for the two smaller groups contain the same 
percentage of graduates. It may be that the economic factor is of less 
importance with girls than with boys. 

To be conservative, it might be said that the economic status of the 
families in Dr. Van Denburg's study is not of sufficient importance to 
overshadow or more than counteract other factors which make for per- 
sistence in, or ehmination from, the public high schools of New York City. 
He has shown that the presence or absence of younger children in the 
family, the nationality of the parents, choice or lack of choice of an 
occupation, and intention with regard to graduation are factors corre- 
lated with the length of stay in the high school. A more detailed study 
of home conditions might reveal other factors of far greater influence 
in this city than economic status. 

In another study^ Dr. C. H. Keyes showed that acceleration or retar- 
dation were characteristic of certain families. He found that 6.8 per 
cent of the families produced 24 per cent of the accelerates, while 7.7 
per cent of the famihes produced 24.5 per cent of the arrests. These 
facts obtained in a New England city tend to support those obtained 
in Decatur. 

The apparent disagreement between the conditions found by Dr. 
Van Denburg in New York City and those found by the writer in Decatur, 
Illinois, raised the question: "Is Decatur representative qualitatively of 
the average middle western city?" With this question in mind it was 
decided to extend the study to other Illinois cities, and information was 
collected from the high schools of Centralia, Champaign, Gibson City, 
and Rochelle, Illinois. While these data were being collected, it occurred 
to the writer that this study dealt with a special class — those whose chil- 
dren reached the high school — and represented a special situation, and 
hence that it ought to be extended so as to include statistics from all 
levels of society. Accordingly the families residing in Urbana who had 
children between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one were selected, and 

' C. H. Keyes, Progress through the Grades of City Schools (New York: Published 
by Teachers College, 1911). 



12 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

a personal canvass was made by the writer which furnished a mass of 
facts from 234 homes. When these data had been tabulated and evalu- 
ated, and an interpretation was attempted, it was found that, although 
important relationships existed between the amounts of schooling that 
the children received and certain objective home conditions, it was impos- 
sible to distinguish between environmental and hereditary factors, a dis- 
tinction that is very important from social and educational points of 
view. In order more accurately to determine the relative importance of 
these two types of factors it was decided to secure similar facts about 
the education and home conditions of adopted children. 

In outline this presents the origin and development of the study. 
The presentation of the data will follow the same general order. 

THE DATA 

Sources. — The facts presented in Part II were secured from the high- 
school pupils of Decatur, Illinois, during the fall of 191 2. Those in 
Part III were collected from the high-school pupils of Centraha, Cham- 
paign, Gibson City, and Rochelle, Illinois, during the fall of 1913. The 
main data, those in Part IV, were gathered directly from the homes and 
from the courthouse records in Urbana, Illinois, during the summer and 
fall of 1914. The information about the adopted children, given in 
Part V, was secured from the Urbana courthouse records and from various 
individuals who resided in Champaign and Urbana during the early 
months of 1915. 

Method of collecting. — The original data which uncovered the problem 
were secured from the high-school pupils of Decatur during the fall of 
191 2. One morning in November the writer called at the school with a 
supply of blanks asking the following questions, as well as a number of 
others which had no bearing on the present problem: 

Name Sex Age 

Country of your mother's birthplace 

Country of your father's birthplace 

What language is commonly spoken in your home ? 



OLDER BROTHERS 

No. Age Has he finished What is he doing now ? 

high school? 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 13 



OLDER SISTEES 



No. Age Has she finished What is she doing now ? 

high school ? 



The teachers were instructed briefly as to the facts desired and the 
collection of data was then left in their hands. The first period of the 
morning was used and each of the pupils attending at that time was 
required to fill out one of the blanks. Through the assistance given by 
the room-charge teachers the entire high school furnished the desired 
information in a short time. 

After it was discovered that one group of homes educated its children 
more than the other group, it was thought that an objective description 
of these homes might be secured from the children who attended high 
school. For this purpose a blank was prepared asking for the following 
data: 

a) Father's occupation 

b) Father's education mother's education 

c) What is the family income ? 

d) What rent does the family pay per month (estimated by the kind of house in 
which they live) ? 

e) Church affiliation of father of mother 

/■) What newspapers does the family take ? 

What magazines ? 

g) What is the size of the family library ? 

h) What clubs or organizations does the father attend ? 

The mother ? 

These blanks were given to the pupils from the selected homes and 
were filled out in conference with the teachers or principal. The 
results were later checked up by the principal, and reports containing 
obvious errors were marked so that the erroneous portions could be 
eliminated. 

As stated earlier, the facts reported in Part III were secured from the 
high-school pupils of Centralia, Champaign, Gibson City, and Rochelle, 
lUinois. A blank asking for the following information was used. 



14 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

Name Sex 

1. Country of mother's birth 

2. Country of father's birth 

3. Father's occupation 

4. Father's education (in years of schooling) 

5. Miother's education (in years of schooling) 

6. What monthly rent do your parents pay for the house in which they live ? (If 
they own their home, estimate the rent by comparing with rented houses in the 
neighborhood.) 

7. How many volumes in your home library ? 

OLDER BROTHERS OLDER SISTERS 

No. Age Education in years No. Age Education in years 

of schooling of schooling 



2 2. 

3 3- 

4 4. 

5 5. 



Copies of this were sent to the principals or superintendents of Cen- 
traha, Gibson City, and Rochelle, and they secured the information from 
the pupils as best they could. In Gibson City this method resulted in 
returns from all the pupils attending on the day the information was 
secured. In Centralia and Rochelle less pressure was put upon the 
pupils and some failed to furnish any information. In Champaign the 
writer gathered the data during the Enghsh class periods, personally 
directing the work of the pupils. By answering any queries which arose 
because of a misunderstanding of any of the questions and by suggesting 
ways of estimating some of the items, he secured careful replies from 
almost all the pupils. They were told that it was not necessary for them 
to sign their names. Hence it was easy to meet any objections which a 
pupil might have to answering personal questions, and all the pupils 
filled out the blanks. In the other three towns the pupils signed the 
blanks, a fact which made them a little more reserved in their replies. 

The information which forms the basis of Part IV was secured 
through a personal canvass made by the writer during June and July, 
1914, in Urbana. The university-community portion of the town is a 
students' residence district and education is a thing uppermost in the 
minds of those who Uve there. It contains many families who have 
moved to Urbana to educate their children. Because of this emphasis 
on education and because of the difficulty of gauging an economic index 
where there are so many temporary residents, all families who lived west 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 15 

of Coler Street and south of Springfield Avenue were eliminated from 
consideration. The families of the university faculty who lived outside 
of this area were also eliminated. The preliminary list of names was 
secured from the 19 13 school census records, which gave every home 
containing an individual under twenty-one years of age. The list finally 
selected was restricted to those homes which included individuals four- 
teen to twenty-one years of age, and contained about 550 names. When 
the actual canvass was made, it was found that a few of these homes 
contained no children over fourteen (roomers under twenty-one years of 
age having been found by the school census taker and recorded) and 
that a few of the listed families had moved out of town. These two 
factors reduced the list of possible calls to slightly less than 500. The 
writer called at the homes on all the east and west streets (most homes 
in Urbana face these streets). Sometimes no one was at home. When 
convenient a second or even a third call was made to secure the desired 
information. The canvass resulted in securing information from 234 
homes of whites and 5 homes of colored people and gave a random sam- 
pling of the community. The colored homes are not included in the 
study because their members belong to a race which is not as yet a homo- 
geneous element of the population. Their number was too small to be 
studied separately. As an aid and guide in securing the information the 
following blank was used: 

1. Occupation of father 

2. Country of father's birth of mother's birth 

3. Father's native language mother's native language 

4. Education of father of mother 

5. Nmnber of books in the home 

6. Number of living-rooms in home 

7. Number of people living in house over fourteen years of age 

Under fourteen years of age 

8. Number of members of family living at home 

9. Rent per month 

10. Children above fourteen years of age 



Sex Age Years of schooling each has received 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 



i6 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

In conducting the canvass, the writer, after introducing himself, 
usually began with an inquiry as to the number of children in the home, 
their age, and education. Experience showed that parents were quite 
ready to talk about their children and that, after getting somewhat 
acquainted with the writer, they were then more free in answering the 
other questions. By this procedure the facts were secured to question 
No. lo first and then the blank was filled out in order, beginning with 
question No. i. 

The figures for the personal property and real estate assessments were 
taken from the courthouse records giving the assessments for the 19 15 
taxes. In case a name did not appear here, the previous year's records 
were examined. In a few cases the figures were obtained in the latter 
way. 

The data which furnish the basis for the discussion of adopted chil- 
dren, presented in Part V, were gathered by the writer through a personal 
canvass. The original list of names was secured from the court records 
which gave the adoptions made in Champaign County since 187 1 . From 
these records the sex, date of birth, date of adoption, names of foster- 
parents with their town addresses, the changed name of the child, and 
cause of adoption were secured for each child. Excluding all children 
who would not now be at least fourteen years old, the Hst contained 155 
cases of adoption. The present addresses of as many as possible of these 
foster-parents, of the children, or of someone who could give the desired 
information were secured from directories and from people who have 
long resided in Champaign or Urbana. That the results might be com- 
parable with those presented in Part IV, only those parents who Hved in 
Champaign or Urbana and reared the children there were included in 
the study. 

In securing these data a form quite similar to that used in the earher 
canvass was employed. It was as follows : 

Parents' names 

1. Occupation of father 

2. Nativity of father of mother 

3. Schooling of father (in years) of mother 

4. Estimated number of books in home 

5. Financial status of parents: very poor, poor, average, well-to-do, wealthy (check). 

6. Estimated rent of home in which family lived when children were in school 

7. Facts about all children living or dead, who reached fourteen years of age 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 17 

Date of birth Sex Schooling in years 

I 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

7 

8 

The procedure was approximately the same, after the Hst of names 
and addresses was secured, as that followed in gathering the data for 
Part IV. Members of the family or relatives furnished the information 
for all but one of the children studied. 

Errors. — The data secured from the pupils through questionnaires 
which they themselves filled out were probably more inaccurate than 
those secured by the writer through the personal canvass. The greatest 
constant error is that of omission. It is thought by the writer that the 
effect of this is nearly that of pure chance, though this may be proved 
otherwise if carefully investigated. However, since this is primarily a 
qualitative study, such errors will be less serious than if it were a purely 
quantitative investigation. Wilful untruths may have existed in the 
data, but they were very rare. From the nature of the questions and 
the conditions under which they were answered, some of the data are 
estimates, more or less inaccurate. Errors pecuHar to one kind of data 
will be mentioned during its discussion. 

Method of treatment. — The statistical method^ will be used in this 
study. All the important relationships will be expressed through coeffi- 
cients of correlation. All correlations will be worked according to the 

"product-moment" method of Pearson where r= — . The reliability 

n(Ti(r2 

of all correlations will be expressed according to the formula P.E.= 

i—r^ 
o . 6745 ,- . The reliabihty of the difference between two medians wiU 

\P E" P.E^ 
be expressed according to the formula P.E.D. = -^ --\ . All cen- 

^ til ^2 

tral tendencies will be expressed by medians. 

' All the formulas used can be found in any standard work on statistical methods. 
See Thorndike, Mental and Social Measurements; or Whipple, Manual of Mental and 
Physical Tests, 2d ed., Part I, "Simpler Processes." Whipple gives on p. 35 a 
table showing the reliability of P.E. according to its relative size. 



PART II 
RELATIONSHIPS FOUND IN DECATUR 

The original data collected in Decatur during the fall of 191 2 revealed 
198 children from homes having two or more older children no longer 
in the public school. These homes when examined could be distributed 
readily among three groups: (I) those from which all the older children 
had completed the high-school work; (II) those from which none of the 
older children had completed the high-school work; (III) those in which 
some of the older children had graduated from the high school and 
others had not. 

In all there were 642 older brothers and sisters, 334 of whom had 
secured a high-school education. Group I contained 78 families and 
furnished 72 per cent of the 334 children. Group II contained 59 
families and furnished 57 per cent of the 308 who had not finished high 
school. 

This section will be devoted to a discussion of the dififerences between 
home conditions in the first two groups. 

The replies were most nearly complete with respect to the education 
of the parents, though a few children failed to give this information. 
When the replies were checked, it was found that some information 
was secured concerning 60 homes of Group I and 43 homes of Group II. 
On some of the blanks there was very Httle information, probably because 
the pupils, or even the parents in some cases, could not give the facts 
desired. 

RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATION 

The differences between the two tj^pes of homes are striking. 

a) Occupations. — The fathers of Group I (the families that gave 
their children a high-school education) are chiefly engaged in professional 
and commercial occupations (see Table II). The fathers of Group II 
(the families that did not provide a high-school education for their 
children) are chiefly engaged in artisan trades, and in semi-skilled and 
unskilled occupations (Table II). 

b) Schooling. — The median number of years of schooHng received 
by the parents of Group I is twelve; by the parents of Group 11, eight 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



19 



(see Table III). In Group I, 60 per cent of the fathers and 61 per cent 
of the mothers have had the equivalent of a high-school education, 

TABLE II 



OF Fathers 

GROUP n 
Occupation No. 

Fanner 6 

Retired farmer 3 

Carpenter 3 

Minister 3 

Blacksmith 3 

Cabinet-maker 2 

Night watchman 2 

Janitor 2 

Railroad engineer 

Railroad conductor 

Mail clerk 

Shoeman 

Lock-maker 



Occupations 

GROUP I 
Occupation No. 

Farmer 8 

Lawyer 4 

Insurance 4 

Real estate dealer 3 

Retired farmer 2 

Physician 2 

Public official 2 

Jeweler 2 

Cashier 2 

Minister 2 

Implement dealer i 

Druggist I 

Millwright i 

Business i 

Painter and decorator i 

Floor-walker i 

Nurseryman i 

Mason i 

Railroader i 

Music store i 

Brick business i 

Bookkeeper i 

Auto trimmer i 

Proprietor, machine-shop i 

Hotel-keeper i 

Machinist i 

Cement factory i 

Carpenter i 

Secretary and treasurer i 

Barber i 

Fumaceman i 

Railroad engineer i 

while more than 91 per cent of the fathers and mothers of Group II have 
had less than four years of high-school work. Indeed, 74 per cent of 



I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

Factory employee i 

Boiler-maker i 

Clothier i 

Gardener i 

Cement contractor i 

Conunission dealer i 

Horse-dealer i 

Grocer i 

Miller i 

Clerk I 

Passenger engine inspector i 



20 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



the fathers and 71 per cent of the mothers of Group II did not go beyond 
the eighth grade. The mathematical differences between the medians 
of the two groups, 3.68=^0.38 years for fathers and 3.70=^0.38 years 
for mothers, have a high degree of reUabihty. 

TABLE III 
The Education of Fathers and Mothers 



Number of Years 


Group I 


Group II 


OF Schooling 


Fathers 


Mothers 


Fathers 


Mothers 


2 






I 




•2 . 








A. .... 










C 








I 


6 


2 
2 

II 








7 




I 
24 


3 
21 


8 


12 

I 

6 







10 


s 


4 
2 

I 


4 


II 


3 

2 


12 


15 

4 
5 

I 

3 

2 

12.33 years 


16 

2 

II 


IT. 




14. 


2 


I 


le 




16 


I 






18 






Median years of 
education .... 


1 2. 34 years 


8 . 65 years 


8 . 64 years 



Difference between median education of Groups I and II, 

fathers = 3 . 68 ± o . 38 years 
Difference between median education of Groups I and II, 

mothers = 3 . 70 ± o . 38 years 



c) Incomes and rent. — As would readily be inferred from the facts 
concerning occupation and schooling just presented, the yearly incomes 
and monthly rentals are higher with those who sent their children 
through the high school than with the other group. The median yearly 
income of Group I is $2,000; of Group II, $1,350 (Table IV). Each 
family studied in this section contained at least three children, and the 
average is almost five. Thus it seems that the problem of furnish- 
ing the necessaries of life must be a serious one for many famiUes of 
Group II. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



21 



The differences between the rental values of the two groups of homes 
are evident to one who simply glances at Table V. Statistically they are 
shown by the difference in the medians. They are marked, for 8i per 



TABLE IV 

Incomes* 



Below $699 

$ 700 to $ 

800 to 

900 to 

1,000 to 

1,100 to 

1,200 to 

1,300 to 

1,400 to 

1,500 to 

1,600 to 

1,700 to 



799 
899 
999 
1,099 
1,199 
1,299 
1,399 
1,499 
i,S99 
1,699 

1,799 



Group I 



Group II 



5i,8oo to $1,899 
1,900 to 1,999 
2,000 to 
2,100 to 
2,200 to 
2,300 to 
2,400 to 
2,500 to 
3,000 to 
4,000 to 



2,099 
2,199 
2,299 

2,399 
2,499 

2,599 
3,999 
4,999 



5,000 and above 
Median income . 



Group I 



3 

S 

5 

5 

52,000 



Group II 



$1,35° 



Difference between medians of Group I and II = $650 ±$242 



them. 



* A number of families had such indefinite incomes that the parents themselves could not estimate 



cent of the families in Group I pay $25 or more a month while 77 per 
cent of Group II pay less than this amount. A house with modern 
improvements, bath, toilet, etc., large enough for a family of six costs 



TABLE V 
Rental Values of Homes* 



Per Month 



no. 

II. 
12. 
13- 

14- 
IS- 
16. 

17- 
18. 
19. 



Group I 



Group II 



Per Month 



520 

22.50 

25 

30 

35 

40 

50 

Median rent 

No. who own their 
homes 



Group I 



I 
10 
6 
4 
S 
I 

ho 
14 



Group II 



520.80 
9 



DijBferences between medians of Groups I and II=$9 . 20=*=$! . 17 

*The question which asked for this information was poorly constructed. It was: "What rents 
does the family pay per month (estimated by the kind of a house in which they live)?" Some replied 
by merely stating that they owned the home. Others estimated the rent even if they owned the home. 



22 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



at least $25 a month in Decatur. Hence a large part of the famiUes 
of Group II live in somewhat undesirable houses. The number reported 



TABLE VI 

Newspapers Taken 





Group I 


Group II 


Decatur papers 


77 

15 

8 


<t, 


Chicago papers 


5 


Other local papers 


2 



as owning their homes, 14 families of Group I and 9 famiHes of Group II, 
is too small to be a basis for any significant conclusions.' 



TABLE VII 

Magazines Taken 



Ladies' Home Journal 

Woman's Home Companion . 

Saturday Evening Post 

Cosmopolitan 

Pictorial Review 

Youth's Companion 

Good Housekeeping 

Popular Mechanics 

Literary Digest 

Everybody's 

Religious papers 

Collier's 

McClure's 

Woman's World 

Farm papers 

Motor Age 

Life and Judge 

Review of Reviews 

Boys' paper 

Home-Life 

Current Events 

Success 

Travel 



Group II 



20 

S 

I 
2 
3 
4 
2 
I 



d) Home culture. — There is only a slight relationship between the 
number of newspapers taken by a home and the schooling and financial 
standing of the parents (Table VI). Every home in both groups took 

^ The difference between the median rents of the two groups is much more reliable 
than the differences between median incomes. The latter is barely large enough to 
justify statistical consideration. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



23 



a daily newspaper with one exception, a home of Group I. This home 
took several magazines. 

The two groups of homes showed a much greater difference when the 
quantity and quality of the periodical literature were examined. Maga- 
zines of the better class were found in the homes represented by Group I, 
but were very infrequently found in the homes of Group II (Table VII). 

The library facilities of the two groups of homes correspond to the 
other characteristics already discussed. The median number of books 
found in homes of Group I was 271; in Group II, 83 (Table VIII). 
In other words, the average home of Group I had more than three times 
as many books in it as the average home of Group 11, All but one of 
the homes of Group II, or 97 per cent, had smaller libraries than the 
average home of Group I. 

TABLE VIII 
Libraries 



Volumes 


Group I 


Group II 


Volumes 


Group I 


Group II 


Less than 50 

CI- 7c 


4 


10 
6 

5 
12 

I 


301-400 

401-500 

501 and over 

Median number of 
volumes 


7 
I 
6 

271 






76—100 


2 
6 
7 


I 


101-200 

201-300 


83 



Difference between medians of Groups I and II = 188 ±24 volumes 



e) Clubs and organizations. — The number of clubs and organizations 
attended by the fathers of Group I was larger than the number attended 
by the fathers of the other group (Table IX). The fathers of Group I 
were more often members of those social and recreational societies which 
are somewhat of an economic burden. Among the mothers the only 
important difference to be noted is that the mothers in Group I attended 
the "women's clubs" while mothers in Group II attended the "mothers' 
club" of the public school. 

/) Religious affiliations. — The differences which appeared between 
the two groups with respect to this point (Table X) were not significant 
in their bearing upon persistence in school. A more extended study 
might reveal important facts which did not appear in the small number 
of cases secured in this study. 



24 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



TABLE IX 
Clubs and Organizations Attended by the Fathers and Mothers 





Fathers 


Mothers 




Group I 


Group II 


Group I 


Group II 


Masons 


17 
13 

8 
8 
5 
4 
2 
I 
I 
I 


3 

4 
5 






Woodmen 






Oddfellows 






Social or recreational 


I 




Knights of Pythias 

Professional 


2 

3 

I 






I 


Moose 




I 


Chamber of Commerce 






Knights of Columbus 

Trade union 


I 
6 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
2 
2 
I 










Owls 






G.A.R 








Rebecca 


I 


3 

6 

12 

I 


4 


Royal Neighbors 


6 


Church societies 


I 
I 


8 


Court of Honor 


I 


BenHur 


4 


Yeomen 


I 


I 
8 
2 

I 
I 
I 
I 




Women's clubs 


I 


Eastern Star 








King's Daughters 








Mothers' club 






6 


Y.W.C.A 








W.C.T.U 


I 











TABLE X 

Church Affiliations of Fathers and Mothers 





Fathers 


Mothers 




Group I 


Group II 


Group I 


Group II 


Methodist Episcopal 

Presbyterian 

Christian. 


15 
II 

5 
3 
3 
3 
2 
I 
I 
I 
I 


17 
12 
6 
3 
3 
2 

3 
3 

I 
I 
I 
I 


6 
2 

4 
2 
I 
6 

3 

2 


8 
3 
4 
2 


Congregational 


United Brethren 


2 


Baptist 


7 
4 
I 


Lutheran 


Catholic 


Free Methodist 




German Methodist 

Episcopal 


I 


I 


Christian Science 






African Methodist 




I 

I 
I 


I 


Church of God 






I 


Unitarian 






I 


Protestant 






I 













PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 25 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

Seventy-eight families, 40 per cent of those which had two or more 
older children no longer in the public school, furnish 72 per cent of the 
334 high-school graduates. 

Fifty-nine famihes, 30 per cent of those studied, furnished 57 per cent 
of those who did not finish high school. 

As a class, the parents of the first group were better educated, were 
employed in different occupations, received larger incomes, paid more 
rent per month or lived in better homes, took a greater number and a 
better type of magazines and newspapers, had larger libraries, and 
attended a different type of clubs, organizations, and churches than the 
parents of the group of families none of whose older children finished 
high school. 

There was, in Decatur, Illinois, a decided relationship between 
advantages of home conditions and the amounts of schooling which 
children received. 



PART III 



RELATIONSHIPS FOUND IN CENTRALIA, CHAMPAIGN, 
GIBSON CITY, AND ROCHELLE 

This section is based on the data secured from the high-school pupils 
of Centralia, Champaign, Gibson City, and RocheUe. Only the rephes 
of those pupils who reported older brothers or sisters no longer in school 
were used. This selection reduced the total number of homes studied to 
318. An appreciable number of the blanks failed to give all the informa- 
tion desired. A blank might omit the schooling of the father or mother, 
the rental estimate, the number of books in the home, or the schooling 
or sex of the older children. In such a case it was not rejected, but 
the available information which it contained was utilized. Conse- 
quently the numbers given in the various tables differ. Thirty-three 
pupils failed to give estimates of the schooling of their parents, 99 gave 
no estimate of the monthly rental, and in did not report the number of 
books in the home. 

The ratio of the number of homes included in this study to the total 

population is not the same for each of the four towns. It varies rather 

widely. Centralia is represented by the smallest number of homes, 37, 

though it is three-fourths the size of Champaign, which has the largest 

number, 149. Gibson City and Rochelle are both small places but are 

well represented. 

TABLE XI 

Population and Homes Studied 





Population 
(1910 Census) 


No. of Homes 
Studied 


Centralia 


9,680 

12,421 

2,086 

2,732 


37 

149 

67 


Champaign 

Gibson City 


Rochelle 


65 







These towns are situated in four sections of the state, south-central, 
central, east-central, and northern. It is thought by the writer that as a 
group they are representative qualitatively of towns of similar size 
in this state and probably are representative of this section of the 

26 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



27 



United States. This fact, however, must remain a matter of opinion 
until it has been demonstrated by similar studies of other towns. 

When an attempt was made to present the relationships separately 
for each town, it was found that the chance variations present exerted 
so great an influence that relationships were frequently obscured or 
exaggerated. Hence it was decided to give only the combined data for 
the four towns. 

This section considers only families which had a child in one of the 
four high schools at the time the data were secured. It does not touch 
the larger group whose children never go beyond the eighth grade. 
This sort of sampling necessarily provides a select class, and the results 
presented here must not be interpreted in any other light. 



Results 

The facts toward which attention will be directed are relationships 
as expressed by coefficients of correlation. Although the data disclose 

TABLE XII 

COBKELATION OF EDUCATION OF PARENTS AND EDUCATION OF SONS IN CeNTRALIA, 

Champaign, Gibson City, and Rochelle 



Years of Schooling of 


Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


Sons 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


20 






















I 






IQ 


























18 








I 


2 


I 












I 




17 










I 
2 










16 










2 
4 

4 

I 

18 

10 

19 
13 

38 

8 

I 


3 
3 
I 

I 
7 
4 
7 
I 
2 
2 


2 


X 

I 

4 
2 

7 
4 


3 

I 




I 




IC 






I 


I 


I 


14 






I 

I 

10 

3 

8 

4 

I 


3 

X 

2 
2 
4 
3 
5 
I 








13 
















I 


12 




I 
2 


I 

2 
2 

I 
2 
2 


5 
4 
4 
7 
10 

3 


S 
I 


s 


I 


I 


II 






10 






X 




Q 


I 

I 


7 
3 






I 




8 


2 


2 
I 






7 








6 










c 


























4 










I 













































r=43=to.o3 

« = 3i6 

Median education of sons, 10 years 



28 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



a number of others, only those existing between the schooHng of the 
children and the schooling of the parents, rental values of the home, and 
number of books in the home will be presented. 

a) Schooling of parents. — It will be noticed when the tables are 
examined that there is a marked concentration of cases at that point 
on the scale of the schooling of parents which marks the end of the 
grammar school. With the children there are two such points, one at 

TABLE XIII 

Correlation of Education of Parents and Education of Daughters in 
Centralia, Champaign, Gibson City, and Rochelle 





Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


of Daughters 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


lO 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


i6 


























I 




l8 








































I 

2 

4 

2 

7 

I 

2 

I 

5 


I 

2 
2 
2 
5 

5 

2 

3 


2 
I 

s 

4 
4 
I 

I 


I 

4 

I 
I 

2 
2 

I 








l6 








I 


I 
2 

I 

3 

24 
lO 

II 
9 

35 
5 


I 
I 

3 

S 

lO 
2 

3 
3 

5 

I 


2 

I 


2 


I 






I 










2 
2 

3 
I 

4 


4 

I 

5 

5 

II 

3 




2 








I 

6 






12 




I 


3 










lO 






I 




4 










8 


I 


3 

I 


I 


I 


I 


I 








"T 








6 


















e 
































I 



















































r =o.42±o.o3 

n =290 

Median education of daughters, 11 years 



the end of the grammar school and the other at the end of high school, 
with possibly a third at the end of college. Such concentrations disturb 
the curve of distribution and modify conditions somewhat. The rela- 
tionships between the schooling of the children and the schooling of the 
parents are approximately the same for both sons and daughters, 0.43=1= 
0.03 for the former (Table XII) and 0.42=4=0.03 for the latter (Table 
XIII). 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



29 



b) Schooling of foreign-born parents. — Out of the total number of 
homes, 318, 29 had foreign-born parents and 35, one foreign-born and 
one native-born (Table XIV). The number of homes where both of 



TABLE XIV 

Parentage — Number of Families 





Both Parents 
Foreign Born 


One Parent 
Foreign Born 


Both Parents 
Native Born 


Centralia 


4 

7 

10 

8 


2 

17 
8 
8 


31 


Champaign 


125 


Gibson City 

Rochelle 


49 
49 






Total 


29 


35 


254 



the parents were foreign born is too small to furnish any reliable coeffi- 
cients of relationship. 

Only a few of the foreign-born parents have had more than a common- 
school training, while the children have done a little better. It must be 

TABLE XV 

Correlation of Schooling of Foreign-born Parents 
and Schooling of Their Sons 



Years of School- 


Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


ing of Sons 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


jr 




I 




































12 








2 
2 

3 

I 

5 
3 

I 




4 








I 

I 
2 

4 




10 








I 










8 


5 








7 






6 

























remembered in reading Tables XV and XVI that parents are duplicated 
where more than one older child no longer in school was in the family. 
Hence, although five boys and six girls came from homes where the 
average schooling of the parents was ten years, they came from four 



30 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



families, while two homes furnished the nine children who came from 
homes where the average schooling of the parents was five years. 

TABLE XVI 

Correlation of Schooling of Foreign-born Parents 
AND Schooling of Their Daughters 



Years of School- 


Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


ing of Daughters 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


IC 


I 












14. 


I 










I^ 












12 




2 


I 


3 




2 


II 






lO 












I 









I 
3 

2 


I 

S 
4 


I 

2 




8 


3 




3 


7 


6 

























c) Schooling of farm parents.^ — Two hundred and ninety-nine of 
the children reported the occupations of their fathers (Table XVII). 
Of this total, 76, or about 25 per cent, were engaged in farming. This 

TABLE XVII 
Ratio of Ritral to Other Occupations 





Farmers 


Other 
Occupations 


Centralia 


4 
17 
26 
29 


33 
116 


Champaign 


Gibson City 


38 
36 


Rochelle 


Total 


76 


223 



number provided a group large enough to be fairly representative. In 
this group 84 sons and 61 daughters were reported as being no longer in 
school. The relationships between the schooUng of these children and 



' Some of these parents may reside in town, though they consider themselves 
farmers. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



31 



the average schooling of their parents are 0.35=1=0.06 for the boys 
(Table XVIII) and 0.47=^0.07 for the girls (Table XIX). 

TABLE XVIII 

Correlation between Education of Farm Parents and 
Education of Their Sons 



r =0.35=^0.06 

n =84 

Median education of sons, 9 years 



Years of 

Schooling 

of Sons 


Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


16 










I 


I 

2 










le 














I 
I 




14 


















12 














I 
2 






12 








2 


2 

I 

7 
6 

IS 
4 


2 
2 

4 

I 
2 
2 


I 


I 
I 


I 


11 










10 








I 

3 
2 
I 


4 
2 
I 






n 






I 








8 


I 


S 








7 

























TABLE XIX 

Correlation between Education of Farm Parents and 
Education of Their Daughters 



r =o.47=to.o7 

n =61 

Median education of daughters, 9 years 



Years of Schooling of 


Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


Daughters 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


IC 










I 

I 

2 

7 
2 
2 
I 
12 
3 








I 


14 










I 
2 
I 

I 
I 

3 


I 
I 


I 
I 




la 












12 












II 
















10 








3 
3 

3 
2 


I 



















8 


I 


2 




I 






7 























32 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



d) Schooling of town parents. — The fathers who were engaged in 
occupations other than farming had 232 sons and 229 daughters no 
longer in school (Tables XX, XXI). The correlations between the 

TABLE XX 

Correlation between Education of Town Parents and 
Education of Their Sons 



Years of Schooling 


Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


of Sons 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


r6 


20 






















I 






19 


























18 








I 


2 


I 












I 




17 










I 
2 










16 










I 
4 
4 
I 
16 

9 
12 

7 

23 

4 

I 


2 
I 

I 
I 

5 
2 

3 


2 


I 


3 
I 




I 




15 






I 


I 




14 






I 

"s' 

3 
4 
2 


3 

I 
I 
2 
4 
3 
5 
I 


3 
2 
6 
3 








13 


















12 




I 

2 


I 
2 
2 


3 

4 
3 
4 
8 
2 


4 

I 


5 


I 




II 






10 






I 




9 


I 








I 




8 


2 
3 


2 
2 


2 


2 

I 






7 














6 














5 


























4 










I 













































r =0.30=1=0.04 

n =232 

Median education of sons, 11 years 



schooling of these children and the average schooling of their parents 
are 0.30=^0.04 for the sons and 0.35=1=0.04 for the daughters. 

e) Sex relationships. — No important sex differences were found. 
The correlation between fathers and sons in the matter of years of 
schooling received is practically identical with that between the mothers 
and daughters. The former is 0.44^0.03 (Table XXII); the latter, 
o . 43 ± o . 03 (Table XXIII) .^ 

' Some of the children reported the schooling of but one parent. Hence the 
total figures given in Tables XXII and XXIII are slightly larger than those in Tables 
XII and XIII. 



£>ERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 33 

TABLE XXI 

Correlation between Education of Town Parents and 
Education of Their Daughters 



Years of Schooling 


Average Years of Schoolmg of Parents 


of Daughters 


S 


6 


7 


8 


g 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


IQ 






















I 




18 
























17 












X 

2 

3 
I 

7 
I 

I 
I 
4 


I 
2 
2 
I 
4 
5 
2 

3 


2 


I 
4 








16 






I 


I 
I 


I 
I 
3 
4 
8 
I 
2 
2 
2 
I 


2 

I 


2 




15 


I 






14 


2 
2 

3 

I 

4 




5 
4 
4 

I 
I 


I 
I 
2 
2 
I 






la 




4 
I 
2 
2 
8 
I 


I 
17 

8 

9 
8 

23 
2 


I 
6 






12 


I 


3 




II 




10 




I 




4 







8 


I 

I 


I 


I 


I 


I 








7 








6 
















q 


























4 


I 

















































r =0.35=1=0.04 

n =229 

Median education of daughters, 12 years 



TABLE XXII 

Correlation between Education of Fathers and Education 
OF Their Sons 



Years of Schooling 


Years of Schooling of Fathers 


of Sons 





3 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


18 


20 




































19 




































18 














4 














I 








17 


















I 

I 

3 

2 
2 
2 

I 










16 














4 

S 

6 

2 

28 

12 

24 

18 

48 

6 

I 


I 

I 
I 

2 
2 
2 

I 
2 
2 


2 

2 

I 
5 
3 


S 
I 
2 
■ I 
16 
6 

4 

I 

7 
2 




2 

I 




I 

I 






I? 










I 






14 












13 




















I 

5 






12 










2 

I 

3 

I 
6 
2 


3 

4 

I 

3 
5 
3 




2 

I 
I 


2 

I 




II 






I 
I 


2 

I 

s 

I 




10 












Q 


I 






I 
I 






8 


I 


2 










7 












6 


















s 


































4 














I 

























































r =o.44=*:o.03 
n =317 



34 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



f) Rent. — It may be rather unfair to combine the figures for the four 
towns, because rental values vary from town to town for approximately 
the same accommodations. Such variations tend to reduce the figures 

TABLE XXIII 

Correlation between Education of Mothers and Education 
OF Their Daughters 



Years of Schooling 


Years of Schooling of Mothers 


of Daughters 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


in 




















1 








l8 


























17 










I 
3 
3 
4 
6 
27 

13 
16 

13 

44 

6 






I 
6 


I 
6 
I 

8 

9 
12 

3 

5 










i6 














2 
2 
3 


I 
2 

1 

I 
I 
I 




3 


ic 










I 
I 
I 

3 

I 
2 




14 






2 

I 

2 


I 

3 

I 

3 

I 

5 

I 


2 
2 
12 
1 
2 
3 
4 
I 


2 

4 
2 
2 


1 
1 


2 


13 








12 


I 




3 


11 


10 




I 


I 
2 
2 

3 


.... 


1 









8 




4 


2 


2 




I 






7 








6 


















c 




























4 


1 





















































r = o.43=to.o3 
« = 300 



of relationship obtained, though perhaps not as much as might be 
expected. There is probably a positive correlation between rental 
values and the opportunities for education offered by a community. If 
such be the case, it must counteract the effects of the variations. 



TABLE XXIV 
Owners and Renters 





Owners 


Renters 


Centralia 


25 
85 
45 
17 


3 
21 
10 


Champaign 

Gibson City 


Rochelle 


7 


Total 


172 


41 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



35 



Only 41 out of the 213 families which gave the information pay 
rent (Table XXIV). Since the pupils were requested to estimate the 
rental values of their homes when their parents owned them, most 
of the rental values are estimates. This fact introduces a certain amount 
of unreHabiHty into the data which would tend to reduce the correlation 
figures below their probable values. Even if such be the case, the corre- 
lation coefficients are large enough to indicate a clear relationship 



TABLE XXV 

Correlation of Rental Values* and Education of Sons 



Years of School- 


Rent of Home per Month, Dollars 


ing of Sons 


10 


IS 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


SO 


55 


60 


6s 


70 


75 


20 












I 


















TO 






.... 






















18 










2 

I 

3 






2 












I 


17 


























16 


. . . . 

I 

I 
I 
I 
2 


I 

I 
I 




2 


2 


f 


2 


I 












je 




I 








14. . 




4 


I 






2 

I 




2 




f2 


I 

7 
4 
3 

I 
2 












■ ■ 


12 


S 
3 
6 

7 

13 

4 


8 
7 
3 
4 
13 
4 


9 
5 
4 
3 

IX 

I 


6 

2 
2 
4 


9 

I 

I 
2 


2 

I 
I 


4 

I 

3 


4 

I 


I 






II 






10 . . 


3 

7 
8 
2 




3 














8 
















7 ... 
















6 




I 


















e 




























A. 


I 

























































r =0.40= 
n =241 



=0.04 



* The rental values were grouped as follows: The $io group includes all living in homes worth $io 
or less per month, the $is group includes all values between $ii and $15, etc. 



(Tables, XXV, XXVI). The correlation between rental values and 
schoohng of sons is 0.40=^=0.04 and between rental values and schooling 
of daughters it is o. 24=1=0.04. These families were a select group from 
which those children who never reached high school had been eliminated. 
Where are those famiUes located in rental distribution whose children 
never went beyond the elementary school? An answer will be sug- 
gested by Part IV. 



36 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



g) Number of books in the home. — The pupils found it more difficult 
to estimate the number of books in the home than to estimate the rental 

TABLE XXVI 
Correlation of Rental Values and Education of Daughters 



Years of 
Schooling of 
Daughters 


Rent of Home per Month, Dollars 


10 


IS 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


65 


70 


75 


80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


17 












2 

3 
I 

4 

I 
2 

I 
I 

I 




























il::.... 




I 
I 
3 
3 
10 

4 

5 

5 

II 

3 


I 

4 
I 
8 

4 
8 
I 

9 
I 


I 
4 
9 
2 

5 

2 

4 


2 
I 

4 
7 

I 
2 
4 


S 


I 


I 






I 




I 










I 


ic 














14 

13 

12 


I 
I 
7 


I 

4 
6 

I 

I 
II 


I 
I 


I 
I 
I 
2 


I 
2 




















I 

I 
I 
I 
2 




I 


























II 






I 












10. . . i . . 


5 

I 
10 

I 
















9 

8 


















4 








I 














7 

6 








































c 








































4 


I 
































■ 











































r =0.24=1=0.04 
n =219 



values of the home. The best showing was made by Champaign, where 
the data were furnished by the pupils while imder the direct supervision 
of the writer (Table XXVII). Here the pupils were urged to estimate 

TABLE XXVII 
Number Who Estimated the Books in the Home 

Centralia 18 

Champaign 108 

Gibson City 46 

Rochelle 42 

and were told that a rough estimate was better than none. As an aid 
in estimating it was suggested that a sheK three feet long held about 
twenty-five ordinary books. Chance remarks dropped by some of the 
pupils later disclosed the fact that some who had many books in their 
homes made rather wild estimates. In every case reported to the writer. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



37 



TABLE XXVIII 

Correlation of Number of Books in the Home and the Schooling of Sons 





Number of Books in Home 


of Sons 


10 


25 


5° 


75 


lOO 


ISO 


200 


250 


300 


400 


500 


600 


700 




















I 


































i8 














3 


I 
I 

I 
2 










I 


























i6 


I 




I 

I 


I 


2 
2 


2 


5 


I 

2 

3 
6 
I 
2 

I 
2 


I 
I 


2 










I 












I 










I 
2 

2 


I 
lO 

3 
6 

3 

13 

3 

I 












12 


2 
2 
S 
5 

7 

2 


I 

2 

5 

I 


5 
3 
13 
6 
8 
3 


.... 

7 

2 
I 
2 


6 

2 

3 

2 

3 

2 


4 

4 

2 
2 

I 


4 

I 


S 
I 
I 




I 


















8 


2 


3 




I 






6 





















































I 











































r =0.39=^0.04 
« =227 



TABLE XXIX 
Correlation of Number of Books in Home and the Schooling of Daughters 



Years of Schooling 
of Daughters 


Number of Books in Home 


10 


25 


so 


75 


100 


150 


200 


250 


300 


400 


500 


600 


700 








I 
I 






















16 








4 


I 

I 
I 

I 

5 

I 
I 

I 


3 

I 

4 

I 

5 

5 
2 
2 


3 

I 
2 

4 
2 

5 
2 

I 


3 

I 

2 
I 

I 
3 
4 


2 

I 

4 

I 


2 




2 










lA 


I 




2 

I 

8 
I 

7 
4 
6 

5 


I 

.... 

I 
I 

I 


2 
4 
9 
4 
3 
2 

9 

2 


I 
2 
5 




2 


12 




12 


3 


3 
2 

I 
2 
3 




4 








I 

2 

10 

I 


I 










I 


8 




I 






7 






6 














































I 





















































r =0.18 ±0.04 
n =209 



38 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



however, the estimates were low, never high. Those who had few books 
in their homes made comparatively accurate estimates. 

The four towns were represented by 214 homes containing 227 sons 
and 209 daughters. The coefficient of correlation between the number 
of books in the home and the schooling of the sons is 0.39 =1=0. 04 (Table 
XXVIII), while the like relationship for the daughters is 0.18 ±0.04 
(Table XXIX). 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

The coefficients of correlation presented in this section are summed 

up in Table XXX. 

TABLE XXX 



Correlated With 


Schooling of 
Sons 


Schooling of 
Daughters 


Average schooling of parents 


o.43=to.03 
0.35 ±0.06 
0.30*0.04 
o.49=±=o.o3 


0.42*0.03 
0.47*0.07 
0.35*0.04 


Average schooling of farm parents .... 
Average schooling of town parents. . . . 
Schooling of father 


Schooling of mother 


0.43*0.03 
0.24*0.04 
0.18*0.04 


Rental values 


0.40*0.04 
0.39*0.04 


Number of books in the home 



These statistics show in a general way the existence of definite rela- 
tionships between the home conditions of parents of high-school pupils 
and the amounts of schooling which the children receive. 

This part supports the general conclusions arrived at in the Decatur 
study. 



PART IV 
PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS IN URBANA 

The data presented in Part IV were secured through the personal 
canvass made by the writer. Only the facts collected from the homes 
of whites, 234 in number, are used. Some of these homes had no chil- 
dren who had completed their education. Such homes will not be 
considered where relationships between schooling and various home 
conditions are presented. Where the facts are such that it makes no 
difference whether the children have completed their education or not, 
the entire group of 234 homes will be used. Any special selection of 
homes made will be mentioned when the facts are discussed. 

The method followed in securing the material presented in Part IV 
is open to the criticism that, since the canvasser knew what he was seek- 
ing, some of the items may have been more or less unconsciously weighted. 
Personally, the writer thinks that this criticism need not be taken seri- 
ously. Throughout the canvass the writer kept as scientific an attitude 
as possible and faithfully recorded all answers even though they failed 
to fit his preconceived ideas. As a means of observing this open- 
mindedness the facts given in Part IV were collected before those pre- 
sented in Part III had been evaluated. 

Urbana is composed of a rather homogeneous population. In the 
few homes which have foreign-born parents all speak the English lan- 
guage. Out of the total number of homes there were only five in which 
both parents were foreign born. These were people of German ancestry. 
Only 23 fathers and 8 mothers were born outside the United States 
(Table XXXI). A few of the parents born in this country came from 
homes in which only a foreign language was spoken (Table XXXII). 

SECTION I. SCHOOLING OF PARENTS AND CHILDREN 

The relationships existing between the education, as measured by 
years of schooling, of parents and children wiU be the theme of this sec- 
tion. In the main the data are approximations, estimates of all of the 
members of a family fourteen years of age or older given by some member 
of each family. The age fourteen was taken as the minimum because 

39 



40 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



the compulsory education law operates until this age is reached, and those 
under fourteen have not legally completed their education. The local 
public-school system was used as a standard for comparison and all 
estimates were made by comparisons with it. An appreciable number of 
these people were educated in other schools — some in schools of other 
states. This fact introduces a small degree of unreliabiHty. The 
writer feels, however, that, if the true amounts of schooling of these indi- 
viduals could be ascertained, they would not vary from the amounts 
given here by more than a year or two, except in possibly five or ten 



TABLE XXXI 



TABLE XXXII 





Birthplace Of 




Fathers 


Mothers 


United States , 

Germany 


211 

9 

4 

44 

3 

2 
I 

33 


226 
6 

I 






Ireland 




Sweden 




Scotland 


I 


Total foreign-bom . 


8 





Language Commonly 
Spoken by Parents Of 




Fathers 


Mothers 


English 


219 

12 

I 
I 
I 


223 

10 

I 


German 

Scotch 


Swedish 




Norwegian 







cases where it was impossible to do more than estimate roughly the edu- 
cation of the individuals concerned. Such cases were those of dead 
parents and families where the father had deserted the home. In nearly 
all cases where there was any doubt, the amount listed is probably an 
overestimation instead of an underestimation. It was more difficult to 
estimate the education of those who had never gone beyond the ele- 
mentary school. 

The educational level of a home, however, is probably a rather con- 
stant factor, changing but little after the parents have started to rear 
their children. 



RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PARENTS AS TO NUMBER OF YEARS OF SCHOOLING 

Fathers and mothers are much alike with reference to the number of 
years of schooling they have received. Mothers as a group are sHghtly 
less variable in the matter of education than fathers (Fig. i). The mode 
and the median fall at eight years for both mothers and fathers. The 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



41 



last two years of the elementary school is where a large number of parents 
finished their schooling, probably because many of them were reared in 
the country, and rural schools did not extend beyond the eighth grade. 
Since the high school constitutes another division of the school, we again 




o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 lb 20 

Fig. I. — Education of Urbana Fathers and Mothers: Years of Schooling 

find, what common-sense has akeady taught us, that the end of the high 
school was also a stopping-place for a large number. Only a small num- 
ber of people went to a college or university. This is somewhat sur- 
prising, until an explanation is sought, for Urbana has been the seat of 



42 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



the state university since its foundation in 1869. When it is remembered 
that university work until quite recently did little except prepare for the 
professions, this scarcity of college people seems more natural. Further, 

TABLE XXXIII 

COEEELATION BETWEEN EDUCATION OF FATHERS AND EDUCATION OF MOTHERS 



Years of Schooling 


Years of Schooling of Mothers 


of Fathers 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


20 




















I 














IQ 
























I 








18 




























I 




17 


















I 














16 
























3 
I 

3 

I 

12 

I 

s 

3 
3 

I 


I 






IC 


















I 
I 
I 
I 
6 
7 
3 
32 
8 
2 
I 
2 

I 


I 


I 
I 






14 
























la 
























12 
















I 


5 
3 

4 
5 

2 


2 
10 

I 

9 

I 
2 


I 
2 
2 


I 


3 




II 












10 
















I 
I 
I 
IS 
7 
2 















I 




I 
3 
9 
2 








8 
















7 








2 

4 

I 
2 


3 

2 








6 
















c 




















4 
























3 


I 












I 
I 


2 

I 














2 




I 




I 


















I 

























I 




I 





















































r ==o.6s=±=o.o3 

n =231 

Median education of fathers and mothers, both 8 years 



many of these professional people have been eliminated through the 
rejection of data from the university residence district. The correla- 
tion' between the schooling of the father and the schooHng of the mother 
is high, being 0.65^0.03 (Table XXXIII). 

^ It might be well to explain, at this point, what is meant by a coefficient of corre- 
lation. Coefficients of correlation are measures of resemblance between quantities 
found coexisting under varying conditions. There may be complete correspondence, 
+1 . 00 (the + sign is omitted in this study), or the exact opposite, — i . 00. Usually, 
however, the measures secured contain chance errors and a correlation of i.oo, 
positive (or negative), is almost never obtained. A coefficient of 0.60 or more, in 
this study, indicates a high degree of correspondence and becomes quite significant. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



43 



RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PARENTS AND CHILDREN 

I. Fathers and sons. — ^The curve (Fig. 3) of this relationship looks as 
if some factor such as the compulsory education law had modified its 
general character. At any rate, the coefficient of correlation is low, 
being 0.47^0.03 (Table XXXIV). 

r6 



14 



o 



2 4 6 8 10 12 14 

Fig. 2. — Correlation between Education of Fathers and Mothers 



16 



2. Mothers and daughters. — This relationship is much higher than 
that between fathers and sons and the curve (Fig. 4) lacks the flattened 
appearance at the lower end which characterizes the other. This may 
be due to the tendency of girls to stay in school longer than boys, or it 
may be a mere chance variation. The coefficient of correlation is o . 60 =<= 



44 

i6 

14 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



y^^^f-:^, 



2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 

Fig. 3. — Correlation between Education of Fathers and Sons 

TABLE XXXIV 
Correlation between Education of Fathers and Education of Sons 



Years of 

Schooling 

of Sons 


Years of Schooling of Fathers 





I 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


Q 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


18 


























I 
I 








I 










17 


















I 
I 






















16 




















2 






I 


I 












IK 




















2 
I 

I 

5 
2 

3 














14 


















2 

2 
5 

s 

4 

4 

10 

7 
2 

I 




I 


2 


I 












i-z 




















3 


2 
I 
2 
I 












12 






I 










4 

3 

5 

4 

14 

3 

I 


I 


I 
I 










II 






I 


I 


2 
2 
2 
2 


I 

4 
14 
6 
6 
4 










10 








I 


I 

I 
I 












9 






I 
2 
2 
2 


2 
I 


2 


I 

3 

I 
I 
I 

I 


S 












I 


8 






2 
I 

I 
I 


I 

3 

I 
















7 


5 
















6 


















5 


2 




2 


I 


I 

3 


















4 




I 
2 




















3 







































































r =0. 47=1=0. 03 

n =224 

Median education of sons, 8 years 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



45 



0.03 (Table XXXV). The daughter who is indicated as illiterate was 
an epileptic, unable to attend school. 

TABLE XXXV 
Correlation between Education of Mothers A>rD Education of Daughters 





Years of Schooling of Mothers 


of Daughters - 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


10 






















I 




18 
























17 




. 






















16 










I 




4 
2 




3 




II 
2 
2 




TC ... 












1± . . 














I 
I 

2 
2 

I 
3 
4 

I 


4 
II 

I 
I 


I 
2 
3 




IZ 














I 
II 

S 
II 

4 
17 
10 

3 




12 


I 










4 
2 

3 
4 
6 
6 
3 
3 


7 
2 

3 

2 
2 




II 




2 

I 








10 








S 












8 






3 
3 

2 
2 


I 
I 
2 

3 


8 

9 

2 


S 
2 






7 








6 


3 

2 










c 












A. 
























I 




I 
































I 


























... 










I 









































f =0.60=^0.03 

tt =234 

Median education of daughters, 9 years 



14 













, / 


\ 










/ 












, / 


J 










1/ 











2 4 6 8 10 12 14 

Fig. 4. — Correlation between Education of Mothers and Daughters 



46 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



3. Fathers and daughters. — This relationship is higher than that 
between fathers and sons and lower than that between mothers and 
daughters. The difference is so little in either case that it cannot 
legitimately be made the basis of any conclusion. The coefficient of 
correlation is 0.56=^=0.03 (Table XXXVI). 

TABLE XXXVI 

Correlation between Education of Daughters and Education of Fathers 



Years of 
Schooling 


Years of Schooling of Fathers 


of Daugh- 
ters 





I 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


Q 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


19 


























I 


















18 










































17 












































16 
















I 


4 


I 


I 

2 

I 

3 

4 
2 
2 

S 

I 
2 


I 


2 


2 


4 


2 

I 












15 
















I 










14 






















I 

s 

I 
I 


I 
I 

8 

I 
2 

I 




2 










13 






I 
I 
2 












I 
12 

3 
8 
2 
8 
6 


2 

2 
I 
2 
I 




I 










12 












2 

I 

4 
2 
II 
10 
4 
3 


3 
2 

4 

3 

12 

10 

3 




I 




I 








II 










I 
I 








10 






















9 












I 














I 


8 






3 

3 

I 


2 

I 


3 
2 

I 


I 

2 

I 
















7 


3 






















6 






















5 




I 


















4 
































3 










I 


I 
































2 








































I 



























































I 









































































r=o. 56=1=0. 03 

« = 23I 



4. Mothers and sons. — This relationship is almost the same as 
the preceding, the coefficient of correlation being 0.55=^=0.03 (Table 
XXXVII). 

5. Parental average and children. — When the average schooling of each 
family is correlated with the schooling of the children, a closer relation- 
ship is revealed. The coefficients of correlation are o. 65 ± o . 03 for the 
sons (Table XXXVIII) and 0.62=1=0.03 for the daughters (Table 
XXXIX), a rather high degree of correspondence. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



47 



TABLE XXXVII 

Correlation between Education of Sons and Education of Mothers 



Years of Schooling 


Years of Schooling of Mothers 


of Sons 


o 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


ID 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


i8 


























I 




I 
I 




17 






















I 






i6 














I 




3 

I 

3 

2 

4 

4 

5 

S 

i8 

lO 

3 

I 






2 






IC 
















I 






I 




14, 




















2 

2 
5 

4 

2 

I 

4 






12 


















I 
2 

I 

4 
S 
4 

I 


I 

5 

2 
2 
2 
2 


I 

I 




I 


I 


12 










I 




I 

I 
3 
5 
4 
3 


I 
I 
2 

5 
II 

9 
3 

2 

I 
2 




II 












lO 












I 

I 
I 
I 



















2 

3 
6 

4 
3 
5 








8 






I 










7 












6 






4 




I 












c 
















4 




I 
















2 























































r =o.5S±o.o3 
n =214 



TABLE XXXVIII 

Correlation between Education of Sons and Average Education of Parents 



Years of School- 


Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


ing of Sons 


I 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


18 


























I 
I 
2 

I 
I 
I 
I 




17 


















I 
2 










16 












I 




I 










IS 












2 








14 
















2 
2 
2 
3 
3 

3 

13 

6 

2 




I 

I 

2 


2 

I 

3 

2 

3 

I 
2 




12 
















I 
4 
3 
2 
2 
I 
I 
I 
I 


2 

5 
2 
I 
I 
2 
2 
I 


I 


12 










2 
I 
I 
2 
4 

4 
2 

I 


I 

2 
2 

13 
6 

4 
5 

I 


2 

3 
7 
8 

13 
3 
I 




II 










I 


10 



















I 
I 
I 


I 

4 

I 
I 

4 
2 


I 


I 


8 








7 








6 


4 
I 


I 

2 

I 










5 

4 














.... 






2 

















































= o.6s±o.o3 
= 220 



48 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



6. Sons and better-educated parent. — When the relationship which 
existed between the better-educated parent of each family and the sons 
in the matter of schooling was evaluated, it furnished a correlation coeflS- 
cient of 0.60 ±0.03 (Table XL). 

TABLE XXXIX 

coreelation between education of daughters and average 
Education of Parents 



Years of 
Schooling of 
Daughters 


Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


I 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


19 
























I 






18 




























17 






























16 












I 




3 


2 
2 


2 




s 


5 

I 
2 




IC 














14 


















2 
3 
7 
3 








la 










I 

2 
2 
I 








2 
II 
2 
4 
I 

3 

I 
I 




I 

10 

I 

I 
I 




12 










2 
I 

4 


3 

2 

4 

5 

II 

8 

2 


4 
3 
8 
4 
9 
7 
I 
I 




II 






I 








10 










9 










I 
2 


2 






8 






2 


I 
2 

3 
3 


3 

2 
2 
4 


14 
12 

3 




7 












6 


3 


2 














5 












4 




















3 










^ 


I 


















2 


























I 











































I 















































r =o.62='=o.o3 
n =232 



7. 5ow5 awi more poorly educated parent. This relationship proved 
to be nearly the same as the preceding, being slightly lower, o. 57=1=0. 03 
(Table XLI). 

Comparisons. — All the sons and daughters who have been given in 
the data thus far presented in this section were reported as having com- 
pleted their education. A few, perhaps, may reconsider their decisions 
and continue thek schooling later. On the other hand, the parents 
passed the customary ages for school attendance long ago. Hence, when 
the amounts of schooling which the children have received are compared 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



49 



TABLE XL 

Correlation between Education of Sons and Education of Better- 
Educated Parent 



Years of Schooling 


Years of Schooling of Better-Educated Parent 


of Sons 


2 


3 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


lO 


ir 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


i6 


17 


i8 


19 


20 


i8 






















■ 








I 










17 


















I 
2 

I 
















i6 












I 


I 










I 












le 














I 
I 
I 

s 

3 

2 

I 

3 
3 

I 


I 












14. 














2 

I 

3 

2 

4 
6 

14 

lO 

3 

I 




I 
I 

I 


























I 
I 

3 
8 

3 

2 
I 


4 

2 

I 
I 

3 

I 
I 


3 
3 

2 

I 

I 

I 
I 












12 .... 












2 

I 
2 

4 

lO 
lO 

3 

I 
I 

2 


I 
I 










II 










I 

2 

5 
6 

5 
3 










lO 








2 

I 

3 


I 
I 




















I 
2 












T 


8 


















1 


















6 


4 


I 


2 
2 

I 


















e 


















A 


I 



















































































r =o.6o='=o.o3 
n =2i6 



TABLE XLI 

Correlation between Education of Sons and Education of More 
Poorly Educated Parent 



Years of Schoolbg of Sons 


Years of Schooling of More Poorly Educated Parent 


o 


I 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


9 


lO 


II 


12 


13 


14 


i8 


























2 
II 

2 
I 
2 
2 

5 
3 

2 






17 


















I 

3 

I 

3 
3 
6 

7 
6 

3 

13 

6 

2 

I 












i6 




























IC 




















I 






14 




















12 


















2 

2 
2 


2 

3 

I 
I 

2 

4 






I 


12 






I 


I 


I 

I 
I 

3 
6 

2 
2 
5 


2 
2 
2 

I 
I 
I 


I 
3 

12 

6 
5 
3 


2 

I 

6 

6 

II 

2 

I 
I 




II 








lO 

















I 

3 

2 

2 


2 

I 

I 




8 






I 


2 






7 








6 


5 
3 




I 










e 










A 




I 
2 














2 























































r =0.57=1=0.03 
n =216 



5° 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



with the amounts received by their parents a generation earher, an 
incomplete quantity is being compared with a complete one. 

I. Amounts of education received by fathers and sons: The fathers 
have received almost as much schoohng as their sons. The difference 



MEDIAN OF FATHERS — 8.45 

MEDIAN OF SONS 8.60 

DIFFERENCE .15±.19 



EDUCATION OF FATHERS' 
EDUCATION OF SONS 



PART COVERED BY BOTH CURVES,#^ 




YRS 



2 46 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 

Fig. 5. — Education of Fathers and Sons: Years of Schooling 

between the medians, 8 . 45 years for the fathers and 8 . 60 years for the 
sons, is only 0.15=^0.19 year (Fig. 5). When these comparative sur- 
faces of frequency are examined, it is seen that a few more fathers are 
at the lower end and a few more sons at the upper end. When the char- 
acter of the school work completed by both groups is taken into consid- 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



SI 



eration, it must be admitted that the present generation, although 
apparently attending school for no more years than its predecessor, has 
enjoyed a longer school year and a much richer curriculum. 

2. Amounts of education received by the mothers and daughters: 
The mothers have, on the average, received one year less schooHng than 



Sa. 



Dd 




MEDIAN OF MOTHERS 8.60 YRS. 
MEDIAN OF DAUGHTERS 9,60 ** 
DIFFERENCE 1.00^.20 ** 



EDUCATION OF MOTHERS 

EDUCATION OF DAUGHTERS --- 

PART COVERED BY BOTH CMWtZ9//// 



^z^ 



o 2 4 6 8 lo 12 14 i6 i8 20 

Fig. 6. — Education of Mothers and Daughters: Years of Schooling 

their daughters. The median number of years of schooling received is 
8 . 6 years for the mothers and 9 . 6 years for the daughters. A difference 
of 1. 00 ±0.20 years (Fig, 6). 

These sHght differences may be explained partly by the increased 
educational opportunities offered to the present generation and partly 
by the desire on the part of parents, especially those poorly educated, 



52 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



to give their children a httle better education than they themselves 
received. The nature of this difference may, perhaps, be seen best in 
a comparison of the numbers who received more, the same, or less edu- 
cation than their parents (Tables XLII, XLIII, XLIV). In but few 

TABLE XLII 
Comparison of Education of Children with Average Education of Parents 





Average Years of Schooling, Parents 




I 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


9 


lO 


II 


12 


13 


14 


Sons 

Received more 


s 


4 


3 


7 
4 

2 

9 


i6 

I 

13 

4 


25 

4 
6 

34 
3 

2 


20 

13 
4 

25 

8 

2 


i6 

13 
8 

22 

9 
9 


13 

2 

4 

23 

I 
S 


II 

I 
6 

17 
3 


2 
2 

2 


3 

3 
8 

7 

lO 

3 


6 

I 

2 

8 


I 


Received same 




Received less 








4 

I 


Daughters 
Received more 


3 


2 


4 


Received same 




Received less 










2 















TABLE XLIII 
Comparison of Education of Children with Education of Fathers 





Years of Schooling of Fathers 




o 


1 


2 


3 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


Sons 

Received more . 


7 




II 


6 


3 

I 


8 

I 
3 

S 

I 
I 


25 

6 
4 

3° 

4 
4 


17 
14 

4 

2S 

lO 

3 


24 
lO 
lO 

30 

8 
6 


I 
7 

6 

2 

I 


8 

's' 

13 
2 
8 


3 
2 
6 

7 

I 
I 


6 

S 
10 

s 

8 
5 


I 


I 


I 


I 






























I 
2 

I 


5 

4 
2 

I 


2 

2 

I 


2 










Daughters 
Received more . 


3 




IS 


3 


6 












I 
I 




















I 


I 





















TABLE XLIV 
Comparison of Education of Children with Education of Mothers 





Years of Schooling of Mothers 







I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


Sons 
Received more .... 
Received same. . . . 


I 




6 




19 

5 


3 

I 


II 

4 
3 

23 
2 
2 


20 

9 

8 

19 
6 
6 


27 
18 
14 

38 
17 
14 


4 

4 

10 

7 
3 

S 


10 
2 
5 

19 

I 

7 


2 
4 


7 

S 

II 

18 
7 
9 




3 




Received less 












I 


I 


Daughters 
Received more. . . . 






6 




13 


4 
3 




Received same. . . . 












Received less 












I 























PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 53 

cases did the children of poorly-educated parents receive less education 
than their parents. When the education of the children of those parents' 
who went to the eighth year or beyond is compared with that of their 
parents, there is no such marked increase. In comparison with the 
average education of these parents, 49 per cent of their sons and 64 per 
cent of their daughters received more education and 32 per cent of their 
sons and 20 per cent of their daughters received less. In comparison 
with these fathers 39 per cent of the sons and 59 per cent of the daughters 
received more, while 45 per cent of the sons and 21 per cent of the daugh- 
ters received less, showing that these sons actually received less educa- 
tion on the average than their fathers. When the mothers are considered, 
both the sons and daughters received slightly better average educations, 
43 per cent of the sons and 57 per cent of the daughters receiving more 
than their mothers, and 34 per cent of the sons and 24 per cent of the 
daughters, less. 

Schooling of parents and progress of pupils now in school. — The chil- 
dren fourteen years of age and older who were reported to the writer as 
intending to continue their schooling were in various grades from the 
fifth to the last year of the university. An attempt to determine if 
retardation was greatest among the children of the less educated families 
was made by comparing each age group with a scale of "ideal progress." 
According to this scale a boy or girl 

14 years of age should have been in the 8th grade 

15 " " " " " 9th grade 

16 " " " " « loth grade 

17 " " " " " nth grade 

18 « " « « " i2th grade 

19 " " " " " ist year of college 

20 « « " " « 2d year of coUege 
21-22 " " " " " 3d year of coUege 
23-24 " " " " " 4th year of college 

This scale is entirely arbitrary and is of value only to the extent that 
it serves as a measure of retardation and acceleration. It assumes, of 
course, that children enter school at six years of age, which is the general 
rule in Urbana. This, however, may not have been true of all the cases 

' This comparison was limited to these parents because their education extended 
beyond the age affected by compulsory attendance laws. The children of parents 
who have less education may be kept in school by law more than through parental 
influence. 



54 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



recorded in this study. Some may have entered at eight or nine and 
have progressed through the grades in the normal number of years. 

When the resulting comparisons are examined, it is seen that there 
is a positive relationship between home conditions and the progress of 
the pupils. With the girls this is only o . 2 2 =»= o . 06 (Table XL VI) , while 

TABLE XLV 

Correlation between Average Education of Parents and Progress of Sons 

Yet in School 
relation to progress, boys 



Years 


Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


+2 






















+ 1 










2 
4 
5 
I 


2 
7 
3 
2 













2 






4 
7 
S 
3 


4 

I 


2 
2 


2 
2 
I 




— I 


4 
2 
2 


3 
2 
I 

I 




— 2 


I 




— 3 








— 4 
















— 5 










I 































r — o.37±o.o7 

n =79 

Average retardation, o . 96 year 



TABLE XLVI 

Correlation between Average Education of Parents and Progress of 

Daughters Yet in School 

relation to progress, girls 



Years 


Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


+ 1 


I 

4 
2 






2 
S 

5 
S 

I 


3 

4 

I 
2 


4 
6 

7 
2 


I 

4 

2 


2 
S 


2 


I 

I 








— I 


2 
2 
I 
2 


2 

7 
I 

2 


I 


I 


— 2 












— 3 


I 














— 4 








I 

































r =0.22=1=0.06 

« =97 

Average retardation, 0.63 year 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 55 

it is o . 37 ± o . 07 with the boys. The boys, with an average of o. 96 year 
retardation, were retarded more than the girls, who averaged o . 63 year. 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

The relationships presented in this section may be summed up as in 

Table XLVII. 

TABLE XLVII 

Education of fathers correlated with education of mothers o.65±o.o3 

" " fathers " " " " sons 0.47^0.03 

" "mothers " " " "daughters 0.60^0.03 

" "fathers " " " "daughters 0.56^0.03 

" " mothers " " " " sons 0.55^0.03 

" " parents " " " " sons 0.65 ±0.03 

" " parents " " " " daughters 0.62^0.03 

" " better-educated parent correlated with education of 

sons 0.60=^0.03 

" " more poorly educated parent correlated with educa- 
tion of sons 0.57^0.03 

" " parents correlated with progress of sons 0.37=^=0.07 

" " parents " " " " daughters 0.22=^0. 06 

Fathers are slightly more variable with respect to number of years of 
schooling received than are the mothers. 

The median amounts of schooling of parents and children are as 
follows : 

Fathers, 8 . 45 years Mothers, 8 . 60 years 

Sons, 8 . 60 years Daughters, 9 . 60 years 

Difference, o. 15=1=0. 19 years Difference, i . 00=1=0. 20 years 

The boys now in school are retarded more than the girls, as indicated 
by an age-grade distribution. 

There is a close relationship between the educational level of a home 
and the length of time children remain in school. 

SECTION II. ECONOMIC HOME CONDITIONS 

This section deals with the economic status of the families under con- 
sideration. The economic status of a family is not always apparent 
to a visitor. Nor can one receive a wholly reliable estimate of it from 
an examination of the assessor's sheets. Since this study includes 
families all of whose children are grown, other famihes with infants 



56 TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

taxing their resources, and all sorts of intermediate types, it is quite 
apparent that an index which adequately represents the economic 
status of each family is not easily obtainable. Three indices — rental 
value of home, personal property assessment, and real estate assess- 
ment — were selected as criteria, and the results bearing upon them are 
presented for what they are worth. 

RENTAL VALtTES AND SCHOOLING OF CHILDREN 

Every home was assigned a rental value at the time the data were 
collected. This was a comparatively easy matter, for in most cases 
where the home was owned by the family the member who furnished 
the information to the writer was fairly well acquainted with rental 
values in the neighborhood. A little difficulty was experienced in 
determining rental indices for a few of the better homes which were 
built by their present occupants for their own use and which far sur- 
passed all rented homes in the neighborhood in beauty and conveniences. 
In such cases the writer usually offered a conservative figure to some 
responsible member of the family for approval. Hence, nearly all the 
homes with rental indices of $40 a month or more are probably under- 
estimated. Since rental values are subject to fluctuation, the approxi- 
mations given here cannot be considered as valid or representative for 
any considerable period of time. A further complication was due to 
the presence of roomers in a few homes. This tended to reduce the 
real rents below the values assigned to these homes. Such famihes 
were included in the group given here, although such a procedure may be 
open to criticism. In spite of all the disturbing influences mentioned, 
it is felt by the writer that the rental index is a fairly good measure of 
the economic status of families. 

When the rental values were correlated with the amounts of schooling 
which the children have received, the coefficients of correlation, 0.63+ 
0.03 for the sons (Table XL VIII) and o.64-fo.o3 for the daughters 
(Table XLIX), were obtained. If the large number of disturbing factors 
which have affected the indices are taken into consideration, these cor- 
relations seem high. 

PERSONAL PROPERTY ASSESSMENTS AND SCHOOLING OF CHILDREN 

The personal property indices were taken from the 19 15 tax books 
at the courthouse in Urbana. These assessments were made during the 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS $7 

TABLE XLVIII 

Correlation between Rental Values and Education of Sons 



Years of Schooling 


Rental Values of Home, Dollars per Month 


of Sons 


10 


12.50 


IS 


17-50 


20 


22.50 


25 


27.50 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


i8. . . . 






















I 
I 




I 






17 ... . 






I 




















i6 
















I 


s 










IK. . . . 






2 




I 
I 


















14 








I 




2 

I 

4 
2 
2 

3 
2 
I 


I 
I 

I 
I 
I 

I 












12 










I 

3 
2 


2 


3 

2 
I 




I 


12 




I 
2 


6 
3 
3 
9 
16 

14 

II 

I 

I 

2 


I 

3 

I 
2 


2 

I 

3 

2 

7 
3 
2 










II 






I 
2 


I 
I 






10 








9 

8 


I 
7 
7 
I 

4 
6 


3 
7 
9 
6 

7 


2 

I 










3 






2 






7 . 


2 
I 








6. . 














5 

4. 










































2 

























































r =0.63=1=0.03 
« =224 



14 



O^O ■^— — — — 



10 20 30 40 50 60 

Fig. 7. — Correlation between Education of Sons and Rental Values 



58 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



summer of 19 14 and the figures are supposed to represent one-third of 
the actual valuation that the properties would have at a forced sale. 
A few families that were overlooked by the assessor were given the values 
of the 1 9 13 assessment. A few families that have more personal property 
than the average were missed by the assessor both times. Owing to the 
almost universal practice of "tax-dodging," the values given here con- 
tain a large element of unreliability. How large this is, cannot be 

TABLE XLIX 

Correlation between Rental Values and Education of Daughters 



Years of Schooling 


Rental Values of Home, Dollars per Month 


of Daughters 


10 


12. so 


IS 


17 so 


20 


22. so 


2S 


27.50 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


10 


























I 






18 






























17 
































16 










3 




2 




I 


6 

3 

2 


2 


3 






2 


ic 
















14. 


















I 










I 


I? 


I 

I 


I 

2 






2 
6 

3 

I 
I 

5 

I 


I 
I 
I 


I 

2 
2 

I 




2 
I 
I 


4 








12. . . 


10 

2 

7 

3 

14 

12 

7 
3 


I 

I 

2 

4 

2 
2 




9 

2 

3 

4 
5 

I 


I 

3 
I 

I 




I 


II . 








10. 


2 

I 

6 
9 
3 
3 


5 

"h' 
6 
5 
3 













I 

2 










8 


2 








7 










6 




















"?.... 


I 






















4 






















? 




I 






I 






















2 




























I 





































I 



























































r =0.64=1=0.03 
n =226 



determined. If it is a constant factor afifecting all classes alike, it reduces 
the indices but does not shift them from their true order. Taking these 
errors into consideration, it is surprising that the correlations between 
the schooling of the children and the personal property assessment 
indices are as large as they are. They are 0.47=1=0.04 for the sons 
(Table L) and o. 52=1=0 . 04 for the daughters (Table LI). These figures 
were calculated for the group who were assessed. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



59 



TABLE L 
Correlation between Personal Property Values and Education of Sons 



Years of 


Personal Property Assessment of Home, Dollars 


of Sons 


o 


lO 


20 


30 


40 


so 


60 


70 


80 


go 


100 


125 


150 


175 


200 


250 


300 


400 


500 


600 


l8 
















I 
I 
I 
I 
2 
















I 










17 






































i6 
















I 
















I 








T C 














I 

I 






I 


























2 
























I? 












I 
I 

I 
3 


2 
2 
2 


I 
I 


I 


2 


I 
I 


I 
I 


I 

I 


2 

I 
2 

I 






2 


12 


4 




I 

2 








3 

I 

4 
2 

4 
I 

I 


2 
2 

4 

I 
8 

I 
I 


I 




T 


II 


2 
2 
2 
8 
10 

4 

I 

4 


I 
I 
I 

7 
I 
2 
2 


I 

3 
4 
4 

I 
I 






















2 

7 
4 




I 

5 

lO 
12 

6 

2 
2 


I 










2 

I 


2 






8 










T 


7 




I 








I 








6 


















e 


I 


































I 






















2 













































































r =0. 47=^0.04 
n =198 































A 






/ 


\ 










^^ 




.h 


^ 


^ 




y 


\ 


\ 








^ 




r 












\ 


^ 








/ 

























o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 

Fig. 8. — Correlation between Education of Sons and Personal Property Values 



6o 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



TABLE LI 

Correlation between Personal Property Values and Education of Daughters 



Years of 

Schooling 

of Daughters 


Personal Property Assessment of Home, Dollars 





10 


20 


30 


40 


so 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


I2S 


150 


175 


200 


250 


300 


400 


500 


600 


10 


































I 








i8 








































17 










































i6 


I 










2 


I 


2 


2 


2 






I 
I 




I 




3 

2 
2 






4 


ic 










14 

13 

12 


I 

2 
2 


































I 




I 
2 


2 
I 
4 

10 
II 

I 


2 

I 
I 

i 

3 


2 
2 
4 

3 

2 

6 

4 

I 


I 

7 
2 

3 
3 
4 

I 

2 


4 
2 
2 
I 
7 


2 

2 


I 
6 

5 
2 














I 


I 
I 


3 

I 

3 
I 
I 








I 


S 

I 


I 
I 
I 




I 


II 




10 


I 




2 
2 
3 
3 
10 

7 























3 

I 






8 


7 
5 

I 




3 




I 
















7 

6 








































c 




























4 








































■3. 










I 




I 




























2 




































I 





















































I 









































































f =0.52=1=0.04 
n =212 



values of home and schooling of children 

The real estate assessment indices were taken from the 1915 tax 
books just as the personal property indices were. Owing to the unal- 
phabetical arrangement of the books, it would have been an extremely 
laborious and probably unprofitable task to ascertain the total values 
of the real property owned by the different individuals represented in 
our investigation. Because of this fact it was decided to take the value 
of the home in which the family lived, if owned by one of its members, 
as the real estate index. The assessed valuation was one-third of 
the actual valuation. The correlation of the real estate assessment 
indices with the schooling of the sons is 0.63=1=0.04 (Table LII), and 
with the schooling of the daughters it is 0.58=^0.04 (Table LIII). 
These figures are calculated from the group of those who owned their 
homes. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



6l 



TABLE LII 

Correlation between Real Estate Values and Schooling of Sons 



Years of Schooling 


Real Estate Assessment of Home, Hundreds of Dollars 


of Sons 





I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


i8 


























I 
I 










17 








I 


























16 


I 
2 
2 

I 

4 
2 
2 
6 

23 

20 

13 
6 

5 
2 










I 






I 








2 


I 




15 








I 














14 
















I 
I 
I 


I 
I 
2 


I 
I 












!•? 


















I 
I 
I 








4 
2 


12 








2 
I 

I 
4 
5 

s 

2 

I 


I 
I 
3 

3 

2 


I 
I 
2 

I 

4 


3 

I 
2 
3 

I 


I 


I 

3 




I 
I 


II 




I 
S 

I 


I 
2 
2 

s 

4 
5 
3 
3 




10 






I 




9 


2 

I 








X 

I 








8 


I 


I 


I 








I 


7 




6 




I 
















5 


I 






















4 
























3 































































r =0.63=1=0.04 
« =129 



18 



16 



14 































/ 


\ 










/S 


, / 


\ 


M 










r 


V 


V 








A 


^ 


i 

' 










V 















200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 

Fig. 9. — Correlation between Education of Sons and Real Estate Values 



62 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



TABLE LIII 

Correlation between Real Estate Values and Schooling of Daughters 



Years of Schooling 


Real Estate Assessment of Home, Himdreds of Dollars 


of Daughters 





I 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


10 


































I 


i8 




































17 




































i6 


4 












I 
I 


I 


I 


4 




2 


I 






I 


4 


IC 














2 


14. 






















I 






2 


I 


13 


2 
8 

3 
10 

8 
16 
16 
II 

7 




I 


I 
I 


5 

4 
5 


I 
2 

I 

4 
2 


4 

2 

2 

I 
I 
2 














I 




12 


s 

I 

2 


4 

I 
2 




2 


2 


I 
I 


I 
I 


5 


II 


10 






2 




I 


I 

4 








9 

8 


I 












2 


2 
3 
3 

2 


12 

7 
3 

I 


I 
I 


I 


2 


2 








7 








6 




















5 

4 


















































■J. 








I 


I 


























2 
































I 







































I 





































































r =0.58=1=0.04 
n =144 



Summary and Conclusions 

The relationships presented in this section may be summed up as 
follows: 

TABLE LIV 

Rental value of home correlated with schooling of sons 0.63=^0.03 

Rental value of home correlated with schooling of daughters .... o. 64=^=0. 03 
Personal property assessment correlated with schooling of sons. . 0.47=1=0.04 
Personal property assessment correlated with schooling of daugh- 
ters o. 52=1=0.04 

Real estate assessment correlated with schooling of sons o. 63=1=0. 04 

Real estate assessment correlated with schooling of daughters ... o. 58=1=0.04 

Allowing for the approximate character of the indices, it may be 
said that economic home conditions in Urbana are closely correlated 
with the amounts of schooling which the children receive. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



63 



SECTION III. SOCIAL AND QUASI-SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS 
NITMBER OF BOOKS IN THE HOME AND SCHOOLING OF THE CHILDREN 

The number of books in a home is a rough index of the culture of the 
home. It does not take into consideration the possibiHty of using the 
free pubHc hbrary, an opportunity which has been open to all Urbana 
homes during recent years.^ It disregards the differences in the quality 

TABLE LV 
Correlation between Number of Books in Home and Education of Sons 



Years of Schooling 


Number of Books in Home 


of Sons 


10 


25 


5° 


75 


100 


ISO 


200 


250 


300 


350 


400 


500 


18 


















2 
I 








17 
















I 
I 

2 

2 

I 








16 






2 




I 










2 


IC 








2 
2 

I 
I 

I 


I 
I 








14 










I 
I 
3 
4 
5 
I 
6 

I 


2 

I 
I 
I 
3 
3 
2 






I 


13 








I 
2 
I 
2 

I 

5 
2 

I 




I 




12 




3 
2 


6 

2 

7 
II 

19 

8 
6 

3 

I 


2 


I 
I 




II 








10 













3 
7 
17 
5 
3 
I 
2 


I 


I 
2 










8 


4 
8 

9 

4 
5 










7 










6 


I 
I 












5 












4 


















3 













































r =0.67*0.03 
n =222 



and character of the books, which were probably marked in some cases. 
Yet, in spite of these limitations, it bears a closer relationship to the 
number of years of schooling children receive than any other measure 
used in this study. For the sons the coefficient of correlation between the 
books in the home and the number of years of schooHng is 0.67=^=0.03 
(Table LV); for the daughters it is 0.68 ±0.02 (Table LVI). 

^ The public Kbrary in Urbana has been in a position where it could be of service 
to the community for more than thirty years. 



64 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



16 






















i6 


































\ 




J 


Y 


14 

12 
10 








^ 


.^^ 




\ 


y 


/ 






—/ 




/ 






\ 


/ 






8 


/ 


J- 


















6 


/ 





















o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 

Fig. 10. — Correlation between Education of Sons and Size of Home Libraries 



TABLE LVI 

Correlation between Number of Books in Home and Education 
OF Daughters 



Years of Schooling 


Number of Books in Home 


of Daughters 


10 


2S 


50 


75 


100 


150 


200 


250 


300 


3SO 


400 


500 


600 


10 
















I 












18 


























17 




























16 








I 


2 


I 


3 


I 


I 


2 




7 
I 
2 


I 


ic 






2 




14, 












I 
2 
9 

4 

I 
2 

I 


I 

I 
I 










12 










I 
13 
3 
8 
I 

5 
I 


2 

2 
2 

I 

5 

I 


I 


3 


I 




12 


I 


4 


3 
S 
2 

5 

16 

6 

3 


3 

4 
I 
6 
I 






II 








10 


I 


4 

4 

13 

17 

6 

5 












Q 














8 


2 

3 

7 
4 


2 












7 












6 
















c 




I 
















4 






















•3. 




I 






I 


















2 
























I 

































I 



















































r =o.68='=o.02 
« =231 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



65 



HOUSING AND SCHOOLING OP THE CHILDREN 

Out of a total of 234 families 34 reported one or more grown indi- 
viduals not members of the family but living in the home. Housing 
conditions are measured by number of rooms per individual. In finding 
this index no distinction was made between children and adults. In 
general, the housing conditions found in this investigation were quite 
good. Very little overcrowding existed and, in an appreciable number 
of cases, it seemed as though the people had more room than they could 
use conveniently. Housing conditions are probably a reflection of 
economic status. Measured merely by the number of rooms per indi- 
vidual the relationships which exist between housing conditions and 
education of sons and daughters are 0.50=^=0.03 and 0.48 ='=0.03, 
respectively (Tables LVII, LVIII). If the size of the rooms and the 
presence or absence of modern conveniences, such as bath and toilet, 
had been taken into consideration, the correlation would probably have 
been higher. 

TABLE LVII 

Correlation between Housing Conditions and Education of Sons 



Years of Schooling of Sons 




Rooms 


3er Individual in Home 


i 


I 


li 


2 


3 


4 


18 










2 

I 

I 
I 

3 

I 
2 

I 




17 








I 
2 




16 




I 
I 
I 
2 
I 


I 


2 


IC 


I 




14. 


4 
I 
12 
3 
7 

12 
16 
22 
8 
4 
4 
2 


3 

7 
8 

S 
4 
14 
2 
2 




12 






12 






II 






10 











I 
I 

3 

2 

4 

I 


4 
16 

9 
10 

3 
I 




8 


2 




7 




6 






s 






A 


I 






2 



















r =0.50^0.03 
n =223 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 




01234 
Fig. II. — Correlation between Education of Sons and Housing Conditions 

TABLE LVIII 

Correlation between Housing Conditions and Education of Daughters 



Years of Schooling of Daughters 


Rooms per Individual in Home 


i 


I 


li 


2 


3 


4 


10 










I 




18 












17 














16 




I 


4 


8 
I 
2 
2 
18 
6 
6 
2 
9 
4 
2 
2 


6 

I 
2 

3 
I 
I 
I 
3 




15 




2 


14 ; . 






I 

3 
II 

7 
II 

5 

18 
12 

7 
6 




13 




I 

5 

I 

4 

4 

IS 

12 

7 
2 




12 


2 




II 




10 













8 


2 

3 

I 




7 




6 






c 






4 








7. 






2 








2 












I 





















I 





















r =0.4? 
w =231 



= 0.03 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



67 



INTERRELATIONSHIPS 

Thus far in Part IV the various factors have been considered sepa- 
rately. In reaUty, they are all interrelated. A few of these inter- 
relationships will be given to show the fallacy which results when 
conclusions overlook the complex character of social phenomena. 

a) Schooling of parents and number of hooks in the home. — As might 
be forecasted, there is a close relationship between the schooling of the 
parents and the number of books found in the home. This correlation, 
o. 60 =•= o. 03 for the fathers (Table LIX) and o . 6 1 ± o. 03 f or the mothers 

TABLE LIX 
Correlation between Number of Books in Home and Education of Fathers 



Years of Schooling 


Number of Books in Home 


of Fathers 


10 


25 


so 


75 


100 


ISO 


200 


250 


300 


3S0 


400 


Soo 


600 








I 


































I 














18 














I 












T7 














I 












16 
















I 

I 




I 
I 
I 


I 
2 

I 


I 


TC 










I 
I 
I 
2 
5 
7 
3 
12 

3 

2 










14. . . . 














2 




12 . . 




















12 




4 


3 

I 

4 
4 
5 
9 
II 

3 

I 
I 
I 


I 
I 

I 

"'6' 

I 
2 


I 
I 
3 

4 
2 


5 
4 
7 
2 

4 

I 


3 

I 

3 


3 

I 


I 


I 
















I 
2 
13 
9 
8 

3 

2 






I 






I 
4 
4 
6 

I 
2 
I 
I 


I 
2 








8 






I 












6 
















I 
I 
I 






































I 


I 




















































I 




I 













































r =0.60=1=0.03 
n =230 



(Table LX), is not so high, however, as that previously noticed between 
the number of books in the home and the schooling of the children. 
The difference is not enough to be very significant, however. 

h) Number of books in the home and size of family. — The relationship 
which exists between the number of books in the home and the number 
of children in that home is slightly negative, —o. 10 ±0.04 (Table LXI). 



68 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



This shows that the number of books owned by a family is not at all 
dependent upon the number of people there are to read them. 

TABLE LX 
Correlation between Number of Books in Home and Education of Mothers 



Years of Schooling 


Number of Books in Home 


of Mothers 


lO 


25 


so 


75 


100 


ISO 


200 


2SO 


300 


350 


400 


Soo 


600 


ic 






















I 






14. 




I 












I 


2 








17, 








I 
5 
3 
7 
3 
IS 
I 
I 








I 
I 






12 






4 

I 

5 
6 

9 

12 

4 


I 

I 
4 
S 

I 
I 


I 

2 

I 

6 

2 

I 
I 


9 

I 
6 

9 


2 


4 


2 


4 




II 








lO 






3 

2 
2 


I 
I 

I 




I 


I 


.... 





2 
6 

3 

I 
I 
5 


5 
13 

lO 

7 
3 
3 




8 






I 




7 








6 
















c 
















4 . 


4 




I 
















2 


















2 


2 








I 


















I 
























O 


I 





















































r =0.61=^0.03 
n =230 



TABLE XLI 
Correlation between Size of Family and Number of Books in Home 



No. of Children 










Number of Books in Home 










in Family 


10 


25 


so 


75 


100 


ISO 


200 


250 


300 


350 


400 


SOO 


600 


10 




2 

I 
I 

7 

3 

7 

10 

7 
4 


I 
I 
2 

4 
6 

3 
9 
9 
6 

5 

























I 
I 

4 

I 

3 

2 

4 
2 

3 






















8 


2 




I 

2 
2 

3 
4 
2 
















7 


I 
I 
2 
6 

S 
6 

4 


I 








I 
I 
I 
I 




6 


I 

3 
3 

2 
2 


2 

4 
8 

7 
12 

7 




I 






e 


I 
2 

I 

4 

I 


I 
I 
3 
4 




4 


I 


I 
3 




7, 




2 


2 


I 


I 

















f =— o.io=to.o4 
n =233 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



69 



c) Rent and size of family. — To a slight extent the better homes are 

occupied by the smaller families. The coefficient of correlation between 

size of family and rental values is also slightly negative, being — o. io± 

0.04 (Table LXII). 

TABLE LXII 

COREELATION BETWEEN SiZE OF FAMILY AND RENTAL VaLXJES 



No. of Children 


Rental Values of Home per Month, Dollars 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


SO 


55 


60 


10 




3 
2 
2 
7 
9 
5 
16 

14 

13 

6 

























3 


I 
I 
















8 


I 
2 
2 

3 
4 
4 
7 
4 
















7 




I 

I 
2 

3 

2 

7 


I 










6 


4 

5 
II 

S 
8 


4 
2 

3 
3 
4 
2 


I 
4 
4 
S 
7 
6 


2 








c 


I 




I 


4 

■J 


3 
3 
4 

I 






I 
2 


3 






2 




I 


I 











r =—0.10=1=0.04 
n =234 



^) Schooling of parents and size of family. — That educated parents 
have smaller families has been observed so often that it has become a 
matter of common knowledge. When expressed by a coefficient of 
correlation, this relationship is — o.2o=±=o.o4 (Table LXIII). Of 

TABLE LXIII 

Correlation between Size of Family and Education or Parents 



No. of Children 


Average Schooling of Parents 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


10 








I 


I 


I 


I 

I 















































8 








I 

I 


4 

I 

7 
4 
6 

9 
8 

7 


I 

I 
3 
S 
S 
8 

7 


I 
2 
4 
3 
3 
4 
8 

5 














7 


I 


I 




2 

I 
4 

7 

I 
I 


3 

5 

I 

7 
3 
5 
2 


2 
2 

I 

7 
8 
2 
3 


I 
2 

4 
2 


I 
2 
2 
6 

5 
2 


I 








6 








c 










I 
I 
I 
3 








4. 










2 






a 




I 










2 


I 




I 


4 


I 




I 























r =— o.20±o.o4 
n =227 



70 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



course, it must be kept in mind that only families that had children 
were included in this group. It may be that there are more families 
without children among the better educated. If so, a selection of 
homes which included such homes in addition to those studied here 
would reveal a larger negative correlation. 

e) Education of children and size of family J- — When the entire group 
is examined, it is seen that the children who came from large families 
did not go to school so long as those who came from small famiUes. 
This fact is expressed by the coefficient of correlation, — o.2o±o.o5 
(Table LXIV). This is the same as the relationship which exists 

TABLE LXIV 

Correlation between Size of Family and Average Education 
OF Children 



No. of Children 


Average Education of Children No Longer in School 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


i6 


17 


i8 


lO 




I 


I 


I 
I 
I 
4 
5 

2 

8 
5 

2 
2 
























9 




I 

2 

5 

2 

4 

2 

5 
4 






















8 




I 
2 
I 


I 

2 
2 
2 
2 
I 








I 














7 




2 

I 

3 

I 

7 
3 

I 






I 






I 
I 






6 




3 
3 
8 

2 

4 

I 


2 

6 

2 
2 


2 
I 

3 
4 
S 

2 








s 




I 
I 
I 

3 

2 




I 
3 




4 




4 

I 








3 




I 

I 




2 




2 

I 


I 


S 

I 


I 


I 















r =— o.2o±o.o5 
n =i8o 



between the schoohng of the parents and the size of the family. It 
has already been shown^ that there is a decided relationship between the 
schooling of the parents and the schoohng of the children. The fore- 
going coefficient of correlation, then, may be merely another way of ex- 
pressing the relationship which exists between the schooling of the 
parents and the size of the family. 

' In these tables the education of the children was averaged for each family. 
This gives each family a single index and does not over-weight the large famiUes. 
= Pp. 43-48. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 71 

If the influence of the education of the parents could be eliminated, 
it might be possible to ascertain the presence or absence of a true rela- 
tionship between the size of family and the schooling of the children. 
An attempt to do this was made as follows: The median schooling of 
parents is eight years for the entire group. The average schooling 
of the children of each family was increased or decreased by the same 
number of years that the average schoohng of the parents varied from 
this median. Thus, if the parents averaged seven years and the chil- 
dren averaged six years, the parents would be one year below the median 
and the index of the children would be increased by one year. Similarly, 
if the parents averaged twelve years and the children fifteen years, the 
parents would be four years above the median and the index of the 
children would be decreased four years. These revised educational 
averages of the schooling of the children were then correlated with the 
number of children in each home. 

This procedure eliminates the influence of the schoohng of the 
parents. It does not counteract other factors which may act somewhat 
independently of the education of the parents, such as economic status 
or number of books in the home. Further, compulsory education 
influences affect the level of some of the homes of the poorly educated 
which have large families and tend to counterbalance any negative 
relationship which may exist. The results do not show any decided cor- 
relation. The shght negative relationship, —0.06=^0.05 (Table LXV), 
which was found, is virtually a zero correlation. 

A FAMILY nSTDEX 

The fact that the factors thus far considered probably acted con- 
jointly instead of independently in determining the amounts of schoohng 
which the children received suggested that it might be possible to weight 
the various items in such a way as to give each family an index and then 
find the relationship which existed between this index and the schoohng 
of the children. This was done as follows: The 25 percentile deviation 
from the median was found for each of the three items, average education 
of the parents, number of books in the home, and monthly rental. 
These figures, which were approximately 2 years, 62^ volumes, and $7 . 50, 
respectively, were then divided by five to give more convenient divisions. 
Each of these divisors, 0.4 year, 12I volumes, and $1.50, was given a 
value of one unit. The number of times the respective divisors were 



72 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



contained in the quantities which represented the average education of 
the parents, the number of books in the home, and the monthly rental 
of a family gave the number of units credited to each of these items. The 
figure representing the units given a family for an item was squared and 
the sum of the squares for the three items gave the family index. This 
can be made clear best by a concrete example. A family whose parents 
have an average education of 8 years, which has one hundred books in 
the home, and pays $15 a month rent will serve as an illustration of the 

TABLE LXV 

Correlation between Size of Family and Schooling of Children, Effect 
OF Schooling of Parents Having Been Eliminated 



Average Years of Schooling 


Number of Children in Family 


of Children 


I 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


16 




I 
I 
I 
I 

7 
2 
8 

7 

I 

S 
I 
I 


















ic 




I 
2 
I 
5 
S 
8 
6 
8 
I 
I 
I 
I 


I 
2 
2 
I 
5 
S 
5 
I 
6 
2 
2 














14 


2 




I 










I? 


I 




I 




12 




2 

4 

I 

3 

I 

4 


I 

2 

3 
3 
4 
4 




II 


6 

2 
I 

3 

2 


2 
I 

4 

I 


I 






10 






9 

8 


2 
2 

I 


I 


I 


7 




6 






5 














4 
















3 






I 



































r =—0.06=1=0.05 
n =178 



method. Dividing 8 years by the educational divisor, 0.4 year, gives 
20 units, which is 400 when squared. Similarly, one hundred books when 
divided by the Hbrary divisor, 12I volumes, gives 8 units, which equals 64 
when squared. The rental index, $15, divided by the rental divisor, 
$1 . 50, gives 10 units, which, when squared, furnishes 100 more. The 
sum of 400, 64, and 100, or 564, is the index of this family. 

This procedure is purely arbitrary, but the writer thinks that the 
resulting indices are quantitatively representative of the differences in 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



n 



the opportunities presented to the children by their respective homes. 
This method gave the best home an index of 4,289, while the poorest 
received but 32. The possibihties of the best in contrast with the 
poorest are, according to the opinion of several people acquainted with 
both homes, as different as these indices imply. There is a gulf between 
them. 

The coefi&cients of correlation between this family index and the 
education of the children are higher than those expressing any single 
relationship. They are the same, 0.73=1=0.02 (Tables LXVI, LXVII) 
for both sons and daughters. 



TABLE LXVI 

Correlation between Family Index and Schooling of Sons 



Years of 
School- 
ing 


Family Index in Hundreds 


I 


2 


3 


4 


S 


6 

2 
4 
I 
S 
2 
2 


7 

3 
2 
I 
2 
7 
S 


8 

I 

I 


9 

1 
2 

2 

I 
2 

I 


10 

2 

I 

3 

I 


II 

I 
2 

S 
2 
I 

I 
I 


12 

I 
I 


13 

2 
3 

\ ■ 


14 

I 

I 


IS 

I 
2 

I 
I 
I 
I 


16 

I 
I 


17 


18 

I 
I 

I 
I 


19 

2 

I 

I 
I 


20 

I 


21 


22 


23 


24 

I 
I 

I 


25 


26 

'. '. 
I 


27 


28 

I 

I 
I 


29 

1 


30 


31 


32 


33 
2 


34 


33 


18 

17 

i6 

IS 

14 

13 

12 






2 

I 




2 
6 

14 

13 

4 

2 

I 




II 




















I 
2 
2 
S 
I 
4 


3 
6 

S 
4 
4 
1 
2 


4 
6 

2 

I 




8 






7 






6 

s 

4 

3 


I 
3 

I 













r=o.73±o.o2 

« = 21S 



74 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



W g 

I-) M 

< s 






CO M vo Clvo fO c 



•H 

fO 



OOO t-^vO lo Tf CO w t-t O OOO l>vO to ^ CO w M O 



II u 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 75 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

The relationships presented in this chapter are shown in Table 

LXVIII. 

TABLE LXVIII 

Number of books in home correlated with schooling of sons. . . 0.67=1=0.03 

Number of books in home correlated with schooling of daughters o. 68 =»= o . 02 
Nimiber of rooms per individual correlated with schooling of 

sons o. 50=4=0.03 

Number of rooms per individual correlated with schooling of 

daughters 0.48=1=0.03 

Number of books in home correlated with schooling of father. . o. 6o=*=o. 03 

Number of books in home correlated with schooling of mother . . o . 6 1 =t= o . 03 

Ninnber of books in home correlated with size of family — o. io=*=o.04 

Rental values correlated with size of family — o. 10=1=0. 04 

Schooling of parents correlated with size of fanuly —o. 20=^=0.04 

Schooling of children, uncorrected, correlated with size of family —o. 20=^0.04 

Schooling of children, corrected, correlated with size of family . . — o . 06 =t o . 05 

Schooling of sons correlated with famUy index o. 73=^=0. 02 

Schooling of daughters correlated with family index o. 73=^0. 02 

The number of books in a home is the best single index of the probable 
educational level which the children may expect to reach. 

The number of books in a home is closely correlated with the school- 
ing of the parents. 

The various indices used in this part of the study are more or less 
interrelated. 

As measured by the method used here, size of family has only a 
slight negative correlation with the schooling of the children. 

SECTION IV. OCCUPATIONAL AND OTHER GROUP RELATIONSHIPS 
OCCUPATIONS OF THE FATHER 

The occupations of the fathers (Table LXIX) show that this group 
contains representatives from almost every stratum of the economic 
life of the community. Most of the occupations are represented by too 
small a number, however, to furnish comparisons. The first thirteen 
occupations will be compared with respect to the schooling of the fathers, 
the rent of the homes, the number of books in the homes, and the school- 
ing of the children.^ 

» The group "Farmers" is not on a par with the others. Six of the 13 fathers are 
dead, having been deceased in some cases for fifteen years. All of these families are 
living in town. Most of these farmers have retired as far as any active farm Ufe is 
concerned. 



76 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



TABLE LXIX 
Occupations of Fathers 



Occupation 



No. 
Reported 



Laborer 24 

Carpenter 15 

Retired farmer 15 

Farmer 13 

Painter and paper-hanger .... 8 

Real estate and insurance .... 8 

Machinist 6 

Stationary engineer 6 

Blacksmith 5 

Grocer 5 

Janitor 5 

Evangelist and minister 5 

Merchant 5 

Druggist 4 

Railroad conductor 3 

Salesman 3 

Physician 3 

Driver of ice wagon 3 

Grain-buyer 2 

Car-repairer 2 

Contractor 2 

Tinner 2 

Railroad engineer 2 

City fireman 2 

Printer 2 

Banker 2 

Policeman 2 

Laundryman 2 

Jeweler 2 

Agent and solicitor 2 

Carpenter contractor 

Teamster 

Teacher 

Cement contractor 

Roundhouse foreman 

Bank cashier 

Mine-owner 

Foundry-owner 

Barber 



... 2 

... 2 

.... 2 

.... 2 

.... I 

.... I 

... I 

.... I 

.... I 

Ticket agent i 

Butcher i 

Section foreman i 

County superintendent of 

schools I 

Musician i 



Occupation 



No. 
Reported 



Furnace contractor i 

Lumber dealer i 

Pump-dealer i 

Tool-polisher i 

Plumber i 

Roadster i 

Shop foreman i 

Coal-dealer i 

RaUroad official i 

Grocery clerk i 

Postmaster i 

Foreman for brick company . . i 
Clothier and dry goods 

merchant i 

Manufacturer i 

Optician i 

Undertaker i 

Road boss on Big Four i 

Horseshoer i 

Jailor I 

Superintendent of signals and 

water service, Big Four .... i 

Roofing business i 

Carpenter superintendent .... i 

Tailor i 

Ditcher i 

Overseer of water-main laying i 

Implement dealer i 

Contracting excavator i 

Dentist i 

Sheriff i 

Veterinary surgeon i 

Foreman of water service on 

Big Four I 

Feed-store clerk i 

Manager of cold storage plant i 

Engine inspector i 

Drayman 

Retired minister 

Bookkeeper , 

Night watchman 

Railroad fireman 

Hostler , 

Brickmason 

Mail-carrier 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



77 



Occupation 



TABLE LXIX— Continued 

Occupation 



No. 
Reported 



No. 
Reported 



Mail clerk i 

Restaurant keeper i 

House-moving contractor .... i 

Deliveryman i 

Postal clerk i 

Horse business i 



Runs ice-cream wagon i 

Itinerant photographer i 

Justice of peace i 

Foreman for contractor i 

Cigar-factory foreman i 

Bricksetter i 



a) Occupations and education of fathers. — The number of individuals 
(Table LXX) in several of the groups is too small to furnish any very 



TABLE LXX 





Education of 


Years of Schooling 


3 


c 
& 

ni 
U 


2 

S 


% 
fa 


to 


II 

ca c 


'c 

1 


g.S 
2 a 

5: 


1 
1 

5 


2 

<u 




"H 
1—1 


.'1 


1 
•s 


i6 
























2 
2 




le 












I 

I 
I 
I 
2 

X 

I 














14 
















.... 








i« 


























12 


I 




A 
I 

3 


I 

I 
I 


I 


I 


I 










I 


II 










I 


10 




I 
2 
S 

4 
I 
I 




I 


I 






2 





I 
2 

5 
8 

3 
2 

I 
I 






I 
I 
3 






8 


3 

I 
I 


3 

2 
2 


4 
2 


I 
2 
I 


I 
2 
2 


I 

I 


4 


I 


I 


7 

6 








c 


I 












A 




I 


















2 


I 


I 
I 






I 














2 . . . 


I 








2 










I . . . 



























I 

7 




















Median years of 
schooling 


6 


8 


10 


8 


IO§ 


7 


7 


6 


8 


7 


IS 


10 



rehable conclusions. The material, however, is very suggestive. It 
appears that an eighth-grade education is the minimum for the occupa- 
tions of real estate and insurance men, grocers, and merchants. For 



78 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



most of the others a seventh-grade education is near the minimum. 
Laborers are still lower, with an average education of but six years. 
Ministers are the best-schooled group. One of their number, however, 
belongs to one of the smaller denominations which cares little for an 
educated clergy. He is really a laborer by vocation and a preacher by 
avocation. 

b) Occupations and rent. — In this comparison (Table LXXI) the re- 
tired farmers, the real estate and insurance men, the grocers, the minis- 
ters, and the merchants make the best showing. Laborers make the 
poorest. The median rentals of the other occupational classes fall in 
the $15 and $20 groups. 

TABLE LXXI 





Monthly Rental Values (in Dollars) of Homes of 


Median 




10 


12. SO 


15 


I7.SO 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


4S 


SO 


Rental 


Laborers 


IS 

2 


S 
2 
I 

2 

I 


s 

I 

s 

I 


I 


2 

4 


I 
I 
I 


I 

s 

2 

I 

2 

I 
I 










$10 


Carpenters 


I 

I 








IS 

30 

IS 

18.7s 

37 so 
IS 

18.7s 
15 


Retired farmers 


I 


I 


4 


Farmers 


I 
I 


I 


2 
2 
I 


Painters and paper- 
hangers 


I 
I 








Real estate and in- 
surance men 


I 




3 


Machinists 




I 


3 
I 

3 

I 
2 

I 


I 
2 


Stationary engineers . 




I 


I 

I 










Blacksmiths 




I 










Grocers 






I 


2 


I 
I 








30 
IS 

2S 


Janitors 




I 


I 
2 
2 






Ministers 








2 








Merchants 








I 


I 


I 





















c) Occupations and number of books in home. — The influence of a 
scholastic occupation appears here (Table LXXII). The ministers 
have libraries which correspond to their education and occupation. On 
the other hand, laborers are almost without libraries, for the average num- 
ber of books in a laborer's home is less than twenty-five. This means 
that these homes have almost no books other than the Bible, a couple 
of hymn-books, and the children's schoolbooks. The remainder of the 
occupational groups fall between these extremes in a close correlation 
with economic position. 

d) Occupations of fathers and schooling of their children. — In this com- 
parison (Tables LXXIII, LXXIV) the small number of cases in some of 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



79 



the groups is further compHcated by the fact that some of the famihes 
had more children than others. Some famihes had but one child, while 
some had eight or ten. Hence it is probable that the medians obtained 
by combining boys and girls are more rehable than the medians for 
either sex alone. This procedure shows the children of real estate and 

TABLE LXXII 





Volumes 


Median 
No. of 
Volumes 


No. of Books in Homes of 


lO 


25 


SO 


75 


lOO 


150 


200 


250 


300 


350 


400 


SCO 


600 


Laborers 


6 
3 


lO 
2 

3 
3 

3 


2 

S 
2 

6 


I 
I 


3 
3 

2 
2 

2 

2 

I 


















25 

so 

150 

5° 

875 


Carpenters 


3 


I 
I 


I 
I 

I 












Retired farmers 


2 


I 










I 








Painters and paper- 
hangers . . . 


I 


I 

2 

I 












Real estate and insurance 
men 






2 




I 


I 




250 






2 

I 


2 

3 

2 


2 
2 

3 

I 


75 
62I 


Stationary engineers 




I 
















I 

I 

I 
I 




I 












50 


Grocers 




I 

I 














75 


Janitors 




I 
I 
















50 


Ministers 




I 


I 


I 








I 


35° 


Merchants 






I 


I 








100 








■■'r ■ 



















TABLE LXXIII 


















Years of Schooling 


Median 


Education of Sons of 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


18 




3 


3 


2 


7 
3 
2 


9 

2 
2 
4 

I 


I 

2 

I 


I 
I 
2 
I 

I 








I 










7 




I 
2 

I 

I 








I 

2 

I 


I 
I 


I 


8 


Retired Farmers. . 






I 

5 


2 
4 


I 


I 




10 


Farmers 




2 


8 


Painters and 
paper-hangers 










10 


Real estate and 












2 


I 










13 






I 




4 

I 

I 
2 
I 


2 

I 
I 
2 

2 

I 






I 


I 










7 


Stationary engi- 
















7^ 








I 


2 
2 

I 












I 








9 








2 
















8 










I 
I 


I 
I 
2 














9 






















8 






















II 



























8o 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



TABLE LXXIV 



Education of Daughters of 


Years of Schooling 


Me- 
dian 


a m S? 

c3 g 3 




3 

I 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


lO 


ir 


12 


13 


14 


15 


i6 


17 


i8 


iQ 








4 


I 

2 

2 

6 


6 
3 

3 

2 


7 
6 

I 



I 


4 

I 
2 


3 

2 


2 

I 

6 

I 
I 
















8 
8 

12 

8 

10 

i6 

8 

9 
II 
10 

9 

14^ 
12 


7 
8 
























3 






2 


3 

I 






I 










8 








I 




2 


I 

I 
I 
















Real estate and insurance 












4 








IS 
8 












4 


5 

2 

3 




2 

I 

2 

I 










































8 










I 






I 














9 




































2 

I 


I 




I 


I 
















9 












I 






2 


















2 








3 








"a 





































insurance men to be the best educated. Next come the children of 
merchants, retired farmers, ministers, grocers, and painters and paper- 
hangers. The most poorly educated are the children of laborers. 

THE TRUANT OFFICER'S REPORT 

It was thought that it might prove interesting and perhaps instruc- 
tive to examine those families which have had to be visited by the truant 
officer. The woman who occupies this position in Urbana has been in 
charge of the work for twelve years. Through the performance of the 
duties of her office she has become acquainted with those families whose 
children were of legal school age but did not attend school as the statutes 
require. The writer took a list of the names and addresses of the 
families that furnished the data which have been presented in Part IV 
to this woman and requested her to mark all the families which she had 
visited in her official capacity. This she very kindly did. These 
families were then studied, with respect to the schooling of the parents, 
the number of books in the home, the rental value of the home, and the 
schooling of the children, and compared with the positions of the remain- 
der of the families as to these items. It is probable that there are other 
families included in this study who moved to Urbana after their chil- 
dren were fourteen years of age or older who would have been included 
in the group that furnished work for the truant officer if they had always 
lived in Urbana. 

For convenience in discussing the data the families were divided as 
follows: Group A, those families who have been visited in an official 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



8i 



way by the Urbana truant officer — 30 families; Group B, those who have 
not received any official visits from the truant officer since they have 
lived in Urbana — 204 families. 

a) Education of parents. — The parents of Group A are less exten- 
sively schooled than the parents of Group B (Table LXXV). The 

TABLE LXXV 
Education of Fathers and Mothers 



Years of Schooling 



Group A 



Fathers 



Mothers 



Group B 



Fathers 



Mothers 



20. 
19. 
18. 

17. 
16. 

IS- 
14- 
13- 
12. 
II. 
10. 

9- 

8. 

7- 
6. 

5- 
4- 
3- 
2. 



I 

I 

4 

4 

6 

2 

21 

13 

23 

13 

48 

24 
22 

7 
3 
2 

4 



I 

3 

2 

33 

5 

25 

22 

63 
21 

14 
3 
6 



Median schooling 



7.33 years 



7 . 44 years 



8 . 78 years 



8.85 years 



Difference between medians for fathers, i . 45=^0. 25 years 
Difference between medians for mothers, i .41 ±0.35 years 



fathers in the homes which received the official visits of the truant 
officer went to school i . 45 years less on the average than the fathers in 
those homes which did not receive an official visit from the truant officer. 
They received a median schooling of 7 . 33 years as compared with 8 . 78 
years for the second group. The median of Group A mothers is 7 . 44 
years; of Group B mothers it is 8.85 years. 



82 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



h) Number of hooks in home. — The median library of Group A, 50 
volumes, is one-half the size of the median library of Group B (Table 
LXXVI). 

c) Rental values of home. — Group B families live in a much better 
class of homes than Group A families (Table LXXVII). The median 
home in Group A has a rental value of $12.50 per month, while the 
median home in the other group would rent for $20. 



TABLE LXXVI 

Number of Books in Homes 



No. of Volumes 



o-io. . . 

25... 
50- • • 

75- •• 
100. . . 

ISO... 
200. . . 
250. . . 
300. . . 

350- ■ • 
400. . . 

500 

600. . . 
Median . 



Group A 



SO 



Group B 



13 

37 

38 

12 

38 

14 

23 

10 

8 

2 

4 

4 



Difference between medians, so=»=io vols. 



TABLE LXXVII 

Monthly Rental Valxjes of Homes 



$10.... 

12.50. 

15 

1750. 

20. . . . 

22. so. 

25 

27. so. 

30.... 

3S--- 

40 

4S--- 

SO.... 

60.... 
Median . 



Group A 



512.50 



Group B 



18 
IS 
45 

7 
28 

3 
IS 

I 
26 
16 
12 

4 

12 

2 

$20 



Difference between medians, $7.50= 
$0.70 



d) Education of the children. — The differences between the schooling 
of the children of Group A and Group B (Table LXXVIII) are somewhat 
greater than the parental difference in education already noted. The 
sons of Group A received an average of 7.35 years of schooling, while 
those of Group B received an average of 8 . 94 years. The daughters of 
the first group averaged 8.15 years, while those of the second group 
averaged 10.16 years. 

e) Causes of truancy. — The truant officer gave a rough classification 
of the causes of truancy. In five homes the main cause seemed to be 
indifference on the part of the parents. In eleven others poverty was 
the thing which was most evident. The children from such homes did 
not have the clothes necessary to enable them to attend school, or the 
parents kept them out to work. With the remainder the causes were 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



83 



more complex and, in some cases, outside of the home. In one case a 
boys' club was an important factor. In another an unsympathetic 
teacher, combined with rigid application of school rules and regulations, 
proved to be almost more than home and truant ofl5.cer could counteract. 
In other cases the cause was the slackening of home supervision until 
the parents did not know what the boy or girl was doing. Truancy, 

TABLE LXXVIII 
Education of Sons and Daughters 



Years of Schooling 


Group A 


Group B 


Sons 


Daughters 


Sons 


Daughters 


10 








I 


18 






2 
2 
6 

2 

5 
8 

19 
13 
12 

18 

40 

26 

14 

4 

6 

2 




17 








16 




I 


18 


ic 


I 


3 
4 
7 
36 
14 
19 
12 


14 




la 




I 

3 

I 

3 


12 


I 


II 


10 


I 
2 

8 
10 

7 
8 

I 





8 


10 
8 
4 
4 


38 

24 

13 
6 


7 


6 


c 


4 




7. 




2 


2 








I 



















I 


Median education 


7.35 years 


8.15 years 


8 . 94 years 


10.16 years 





Difference between median education of sons, i .49=^0. 22 years 
Difference between median education of daughters, 2 . 01 =•= o . 30 years 



however, did not lead to early ehmination in those cases where the better 
homes were concerned. Almost without exception the children from the 
better homes— they can be told by their superior status in schooling, 
library, or rent — continued into the high school and, in some cases, into 
college. 

POVERTY AND HOME CONDITIONS 

An attempt was made to measure the amount of poverty and desti- 
tution present in the 234 families through the records of the United 



84 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

Charities' office. A conference with the superintendent disclosed the 
fact that only three of these families had received organized aid during 
the existence of the local United Charities organization, a period of 
two years. These families were the families of two laborers and a car- 
penter. The parents were poorly educated, as were the children. They 
were not, however, the most poorly or the least educated of those 
studied. Several other families were worse off educationally and 
economically, but were self-supporting. The writer estimated, judging 
from the view obtained through the front door when gathering the data, 
that about lo per cent of the homes feel the pinch of poverty at times. 
This condition was always accompanied by the absence of the father 
from the home or by poorly educated parents. 

CAUSES OF ELIMINATION 

After a part of the data had been gathered, it occurred to the writer 
that it might be of value to ask the causes of the failure of the children 
to secure as good an education as it seemed that they might have done. 
Accordingly questions were asked to secure this information. The 
results of such a crude method cannot be accurate, but they are sug- 
gestive. The causes of elimination are given in Table LXXIX. It is 

TABLE LXXIX 

Had to work 4 

School too far away i 

Moved about 2 

Failed in studies 2 

Disliked school 2 

Sickness 5 

Did not want to go to school; could have gone 16 

Country schools 12 

recognized that some of these replies may have been given merely to 
please the person asking the questions. The frankness and readiness 
with which the replies were given, however, leads the writer to think that 
these replies were the usual ones that these people made to similar ques- 
tions on other occasions. The major roles which opportunity and mere 
whims on the part of the children played in determining the lengths of 
their schooling leaves but a minor part for economic pressure. Probably 
but few of these poorly educated children could not have gone to school 
for a year or two more if those in the home had felt the value of such a 
course and if there had been the opportunity. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



85 



EVIDENCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL MOLDING 

It has been a common observation of teachers and others that the 
children of large families are not all ahke in their characteristics. Physi- 
cally there is much variability. This is likewise true when intellectual 
traits are considered. In this group of 234 families, however, it was 

TABLE LXXX* 

Environmental Molding 
distribution of children by families and education 



Family No. 


Years of Schooling 





I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


" 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


I 














7 






















2 














5 




















3 
















4 
5 
4 
4 


















4 
















I 


















C 
















2 
















6 


















I 














7 




















4 










8 


















4 


I 











































2 


2 


10 
























I 


6 

2 








II 


















2 

I 
2 














12 
















3 

2 
















13 
































14 


























2 






ji; 
















3 


I 














16 










3 


2 




















17 














2 
2 




4 
2 


2 












18 




























10. . . 


















2 












20 












I 

I 
2 


4 

2 

3 


2 

3 

I 
2 
3 
















21 










I 
I 




















22 








3 

I 




















2% 


























24 








I 


I 


I 
I 






. 








25 












2 












26 
















2 












2 


27 
















2 
I 


I 
I 


I 
I 
I 


I 
I 












28 




























20 


I 








2 

3 
I 


3 
3 
I 


3 

2 

I 














1.0 




2 






















21 






I 
I 
I 




I 
2 

I 
















22 










I 
I 


I 
I 












2-3 


























24. 














2 











































* This table should be read thus: Family No. i had seven children, all of whom received 6 years of 
schooling; family No. lo had eight children, one received ii years of schooling, six, 12 years, and one, 
16 years. 



86 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

observed that there was frequently a marked uniformity in the amounts 
of schooling which the children of a family received. In an attempt 
to learn how frequently these phenomena appeared, all families which 
contained four or more children who had completed their schooKng were 
examined. There were thirty-four such famihes (Table LXXX). In 
more than one-half of them, all the children of a family received nearly 
the same amounts of schooling. In many cases where there was vari- 
ability it could often be explained by a change in the environment, such as 
resulted from moving from one town to another. In family No. i the 
children attended a country school which offered only limited oppor- 
tunities. The children of family No. 2 attended a German parochial 
school which offered but seven years of schooling. 

It is probable that the children of these thirty-four families are as 
variable in native characteristics as other children. Hence the uni- 
formity present must be explained by crediting it to the coercive effect 
of the home and community environment. 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

Ninety-eight different occupations were represented among the 
234 families. 

One-tenth of the fathers were common laborers. 

Occupations of fathers and home conditions, such as schooling, size 
of library, and rental values of homes, were closely related. 

Truancy, when due to specific home causes, was found mainly in 
the homes of the poorer and less educated. 

Poverty and indifference on the part of the parents were the most 
frequent causes of truancy. 

Only three of the families received organized charitable assistance 
during the past two years. About 10 per cent of the homes probably 
felt the pinch of poverty at times. All these were homes of poorly 
educated parents or had experienced a break in the home life due to 
death or domestic troubles. 

It is probable that lack of an opportunity or the lack of an appre- 
ciation of the value of education by those in the home was responsible, 
in the main, for most early eliminations. 

The home and community environment "molded" some of the 
large families to a marked uniformity with respect to the number of 
years of schooHng which the children received. 



PART V 
THE IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES 

The data presented in this part of the report were secured through 
personal visits to 32 homes in which adopted children had been reared. 
In one of these homes the adopted child had been reared in the country ; 
the data about this individual were rejected on further consideration as 
not being comparable with the others. The remaining 31 homes were 
represented by 39 adopted children. While the writer was gathering 
the information it was discovered that 7 of these children were the off- 
spring of relatives of the foster-parents. To eliminate entirely the 
factor of heredity these 7 were discarded. This left 28 homes containing 
32 foster-children, none of whom was related to his or her foster-parents. 

The main original data, exclusive of facts regarding occupations of 
the parents,^ are presented here (Table LXXXI). 

Date of Birth of Children. — These adopted children were born at 
various periods during a relatively long stretch of time. Thirty-four 
years elapsed between the birth of the first and the birth of the last. 
It follows that educational opportunities have changed much during the 
different decades in which they have been educated. It is also true 
that the foster-parents, reared a generation ago, had a more restricted 
educational opportunity than those of the present generation. This 
wide range of time must be kept in mind when the relationship between 
the education of the parents and the education of the children is con- 
sidered. The educational opportunities of the children have been more 
nearly constant than those of the parents, for the state university has 
been in full operation during the entire period that any of these children 
might have attended. 

Age when adopted. — In 28 of the 29 cases in which the facts were 
available the children were adopted at or before the age of twelve 
(Table LXXXII). Nine were adopted before they were two years of 
age. The date of adoption, however, was not always the date when 
the foster-home assumed control of the child. 

^ This information was collected with the explicit understanding that it would 
be treated confidentially. By presenting the occupations separately it is thought 
that no confidences are violated. 

87 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



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PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 89 

In a number of cases the court records showed that the child had 
been Uving with the foster-parents for years before legal adoption was 
effected. It is probable that this was true in other cases, although no 
statement of the fact appeared in the adoption records. 

TABLE LXXXII 
Age When Adopted 

Age, Years No. Age, Years No. 

1 8 8 2 

2 I 9 o 

3 I 10 o 

4 5 II 2 

5 3 12 I 

6 3 24 I 

7 2 

Reasons for adoption. — These children were adopted because they 
were public charges or were about to become so. Enough was told by 
the court records to make it plain that the history of each case was the 

TABLE LXXXIII 

Causes of Dependency* 

No. of Cases 

Parents dead 7 

Mother dead 7 

Father dead 2 

Father dead, mother abandoned child 2 

Mother dead, father abandoned child 3 

Father dead, mother remarried i 

Parents unable to support i 

Father dead, mother unable to support i 

Mother dead, father unable to support i 

Abandoned by parents i 

Foundling 2 

Illegitimate 2 

* These are condensed from the remarks found on the court records under the section devoted to 
this subject. 

history of a tragedy (Table LXXXIII). The records were brief and 
meager, but they were all of the same general tone, such as tales of the 
death of father or mother, inefficiency on the part of father or mother, 



90 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

and desertion of an unwelcome child. In other words, these children, 
almost without exception, were born under the most unpromising con- 
ditions, conditions which would suggest weakness of hereditary stock. 
There is nothing in their origins to indicate a single superior child. Not 
a single home left property for the support of the child. All of the 
parents were poor. They were adopted into homes which were childless 
or into the homes of relatively wealthy parents who, after their own chil- 
dren had grown up, still desired to have a child in the household. Three 
children, including those adopted, represented the largest number found 
in any of these homes. 

Nativity of foster-parents. — Most of the parents were native born. 
Those who were not were German, English, or Irish. 

Occupations of foster parents. — A rather wide array of occupations was 
represented by the foster-parents (Table LXXXIV). Only one father 

TABLE LXXXIV 
Occupation of Foster-Parents 

Occupation No. Occupation No 

Retired farmer 3 Merchant i 

Minister 3 Painting contractor i 

Car-inspector i Pharmacist and grocer i 

Carpenter i Railroad engineer i 

Carpenter and contractor i Rural mail-carrier i 

Cigar-maker i Section foreman i 

Farmer and school-teacher i Shop foreman i 

Fruit farmer and carpenter i Shop helper i 

Garage-owner i Tailor i 

Grocer i Teacher and telegraph operator . . i 

Insurance man i Traveling salesman i 

Laborer i University professor i 

was a common laborer. The remainder were distributed among the vari- 
ous business, industrial, and professional activities of this community. 

Education of foster-parents and of children. — The relationship which 
exists between the education of the children and the education of the 
foster-parents is not very close, being only o . 3 2 ± o . 1 1 (Table LXXXV) . 
The lack of opportunity under which some of the older parents were 
reared may be responsible for this in a large measure. 

When the amounts of schooling which the foster-children received 
are examined, it is seen that they fared very well. One-half of these 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



91 



children received a high-school education or better, and only 4 of them 
failed to go to the high school for at least a few months. In comparison 
with the average number of years of schooHng which their foster-parents 
received, 22 of these children received more education, i the same, and 
6 less. When their origins are taken into consideration it seems that 
a large amount of credit must be given to the new environment into which 
adoption transplanted them. 

TABLE LXXXV 

Correlation between Education of Foster-Parents* and Education of 
Adopted Children 



Years of 


Average Years of Schooling of Parents 


Schooling 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Q 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


18 








I 


















17 
























16 








I 




2 












I 


ic 








2 












14 








I 

I 
I 
I 
















I? 














I 


I 








12 








2 


2 


I 








II 












I 






10 












I 






9 

8 


I 


I 
I 


I 


2 




I 












I 












7 






















6 






I 






I 



































r =0.32=^0.11 
n =30 



* The education of the mother is used where the average could not be found because the education 
of the other parent was unknown. 



Number of hooks in home and education of adopted children. — There 
is a slightly closer relationship between the education of the adopted 
children and the number of books in the home than the previous cor- 
relation (Table LXXX VI) . The coefl&cient iso.42=±=o.io. In one case 
at least this is lowered by the fact that a library had been inherited. 

Rental value of home and education of adopted children. — The main 
reason for the adoption of these children was an economic one. They 
were dependent. If these homes were much alike in their social atti- 
tudes, the education of the adopted children was determined largely by 
the economic opportunities of the foster-homes. This seems to have 
been the case for the relationship between rental value of home and 



92 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



education of children is higher than the preceding one. It is o . 60=1= o . 08 

(Table LXXXVII). 

TABLE LXXXVI 

Correlation between Number or Books in Home and Education of Adopted 

Children 



Years of Schooling 


Number of Books in Home 


10 


25 


50 


75 


100 


ISO 


200 


250 


300 


3SO 


400 


450 


500 


18 
















I 












17 


























16 














2 


I 










I 


ic 










2 














lA 














I 












12 










I 

I 
I 


I 


I 
I 

2 

I 
I 












12 










2 












II 




















10 

























I 








3 
















8 




I 


I 














7 












I 












6 








I 


I 









































r =0.42=^0.10 
n =29 



TABLE LXXXVII 

Correlation between Rental Value of Home and Education of Adopted 

Children 



r =o.6o±o.o8 
w =29 



Years of Schooling 


Rental Value of Home per Month, Dollars 


IS 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


SO 


18 










I 








17 
















16 










I 


2 




I 


IC 








I 


I 


14 








I 








12 








2 

I 








12 




I 

I 


I 
2 


I 




I 




II 






10 






I 
I 









2 

2 




I 








I 


8 








7 


I 














6 


2 































PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 



93 



Family index and education of adopted children. — The family index 
was calculated by the same method that was used in Part IV. The 
resulting relationship is a combination of the three preceding ones. This 
device gave a coefficient of correlation of o . 54± o . 09 (Table LXXXVIII) 
between family index and education of adopted children. 

TABLE LXXXVIII 
Correlation between Family Index and Education of Adopted Children 



Years of 


Family Index in Hundreds 


Schooling 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 

I 


IS 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


43 


18 




17 






































16 






















I 






2 












IC 




















I 










I 






14 




















I 














13 
























2 














12 












I 








I 




I 


I 












II 








I 








2 


I 










10 






























I 
I 




9 

8 


I 

I 






I 


I 




I 

I 














































7 








I 




























6 








I 




I 































































r =0.54=1=0.09 
« =29 



Financial status of home and education of adopted children. — These 
famines were divided into three groups according to the estimates of 
financial status given by those who gave the other information. The 
three groups were average, between average and well-to-do, and well- 
to-do. These groupings are only approximations, but the resulting 
relationship proved to be unusually high, being 0.76=1=0.05 (Table 
LXXXIX). 

Social viewpoint of foster-homes. — In one respect all these homes were 
alike. The parents had a yearning for children which was not satisfied 
by offspring of their own and which led them to feel a responsibility 
when they adopted a child. They desired to do the best they could for 
this child, and, since education is recognized as the clearest expression 
of opportunity, they gave the child, in most cases, as much as they could. 
In a few cases, however, the children took matters into their own hands 



94 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



and terminated their schooling before their parents wished it to end. 
It is possible, also, that the poor native abihty of the child was the cause 
of one early elimination. The writer is quite certain that one child — 
one of the seven who were not considered because they were children of 

TABLE LXXXIX 

Correlation between Financial Status of Home and Education or Adopted 

Children 



Years of Schooling 


Rank of Financial Status 


B 


A-B 


A 


i8 






I 


17 








16 






4 


15 




I 


14 




I 


13 






3 

2 


12 


I 


I 

2 

I 


II 




10 









4 
2 
I 
2 


I 


8 






7 






6 













r =0.76=^=0.05 
n =30 



relatives — reached its upper educable limit with the first year of high 
school. But all things considered, it is probable that a common social 
standard made these homes strive to educate the children under their 
care to as great a degree as the nature of the child and their own resources 
permitted. 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

These adopted children were born in homes where the parents were 
very poor, as a class, and the children were dependent, or about to become 
so, at the time they were taken into the foster-homes. 

Most of them were taken into the foster-homes at an early age. 
None was older than twelve when taken into the foster-home. 

They were adopted into homes which in most cases gave them 
superior opportunities. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 95 

They received a superior education as a class. One-half received a 
high-school education or better, and 22 of the 29 received more educa- 
tion than the average education of their foster-parents. 

The coefficients of correlation presented are summed up in Table XC. 

TABLE XC 

Schooling of foster-parents correlated with schooling of adopted 

children 0.32^0. 11 

Number of books in home correlated with schooling of adopted 

children o.42±o. 10 

Rental value of home correlated with schooling of adopted 

children o. 6o±o. 08 

Family index correlated with schooling of adopted children o. 54^0.09 

Financial status correlated with schooling of adopted children . . o. 76^0.05 

It is probable that environment determined the amounts of schooling 
which 29 out of the 30 children received. It is possible that the environ- 
ment, and not poor native ability, was responsible for the early elimina- 
tion of the thirtieth. 

The schooling of adopted children was closely correlated with the con- 
ditions, especially financial, of the homes into which they were adopted. 
This certainly suggests that environment exerts a pronounced, if not a 
determining, influence on the number of years of schooling which children 
receive. 

Adopted children received as good an education, on the average, as 
the children of town-dwelling parents studied in Part III. Their foster- 
homes were very similar, in economic, social, and educational charac- 
teristics, to the city homes of this high-school group. In comparison 
with the children of Part IV — children from average Urbana homes — 
adopted children received over three years more schooling. 



PART VI 
GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

Numerous coefficients of correlation of varying degrees of reliability 
have been presented in the various sections of the study. These may 
be summarized, grouped according to the sources of the data, as shown 
in Table XCI. 

These facts, and others which cannot be so readily summarized, when 
taken as a whole, point to a number of general conclusions. Other gen- 
eralizations of a more specific nature are supported by facts presented 
here and there throughout the study. In addition, there are a number 
of inferences and suggestions which seem to the writer to follow logically 
from a consideration of the data, although it cannot be said that they 
are proved conclusively. The interpretations will therefore be divided 
into three groups, general conclusions, specific conclusions, and inferences 
and suggestions. 

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 

I. The most important conclusion, supported by the study as a 
whole, is that there is a close relationship between the advantages of a 
home, its educational, economic, and social stations, and the number of 
years of schooling which its children receive. This conclusion is sup- 
ported by the pioneer study made in Decatur; by the facts gathered 
from the high-school pupils of Centralia, Champaign, Gibson City, and 
Rochelle; by the information secured through the personal canvass 
made in Urbana; and by the results of the study of adopted children. 

It might be worth while to discuss here the differences between these 
various parts of the study. The coefficients of correlation for the high- 
school group. Part III, are lower than those for the group which contains 
representatives of all classes. Part IV; while the group of adopted chil- 
dren. Part V, gives indications of a combination of the characteristics of 
both the other groups. This is not surprising when the groups are 
examined more closely. The high-school homes. Part III, contain the 
upper economic, educational, and social levels of the communities studied. 
This has resulted in the selection of those families which have favored 
a high-school education for their children. The less exact nature of 
the data furnished by the high-school pupils also tends to reduce the 

96 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 
TABLE XCI 



97 



Correlations from High-School Data 




Schooling of 
Daughters 



Schooling of parents 

Schooling of farm parents . . 
Schooling of town parents . , 

Schooling of father 

Schoohng of mother 

Rental values 

Number of books in homes . 



0.42=1=0.03 
0.47=1=0.07 
0.35=4=0.04 

0.43=1=0.03 
0.24=1=0.04 
o. 18=1=0.04 



Correlations from Urbana Data 



Schooling of 
Daughters 




Schooling of father 

Schooling of mother 

Schooling of parents 

Schoohng of better-educated parent 

Schoohng of more poorly educated parent 

Rental values of home 

Personal property assessment 

Real estate assessment 

Number of books in home 

Number of rooms per individual 



Schooling of father correlated with schooling of mother 

Schooling of parents correlated with progress of sons 

Schooling of parents correlated with progress of daughters .... 
Number of books in home correlated with schoohng of father . . 
Number of books in home correlated with schooling of mother. 



0.65=1=0.03 
0.37=1=0.07 
0.22=1=0.06 
0.60=1=0.03 
0.61=1=0.03 



Correlations with Size of Family 



Number of books in home 

Rental values 

Schooling of parents 

Schooling of children — 

Uncorrected 

Corrected for schoohng of parent 

Schooling of sons correlated with family index 

Schoohng of daughters correlated with family index . 






10=1=0.04 





10=^0.04 





20 =t . 04 





20=1=0.04 





06=1=0.05 





73 =t 0.02 





73=1=0.02 



Correlations with Schooling of Adopted Children 

Schooling of foster-parents 

Number of books in home 

Rental values 

Family index 

Financial status 



0.32±0.II 

0.42=^0. 10 
0.60=1=0.08 
0.54=1=0.09 
0.76=1=0.05 



98 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

correlation coefficients for Part III. The correlations of Part IV, which 
contains the general sampling from Urbana, are less influenced by the 
variations in famihes, because more varied economic, educational, and 
social levels of the community were studied. The data are also more 
nearly accurate. The education of the foster-parents of the adopted 
children resembles in amount that of the parents of the high-school 
group. The especial importance of the economic factor, however, as a 
cause for the adoption of children is revealed in the high coefficient of 
correlation found in Part V between rent, or financial status, and educa- 
tion. This phase resembles the general selection of Part IV. As a 
whole there is a substantial agreement between the various classes of 
data. All point in the same direction. 

2. Another conclusion, supported by various sections in particular 
and by the combined data in general, is that environmental influences 
more often caused a child to stop attending school than did lack of 
ability to do the work. This conclusion is supported especially by the 
study of adopted children. Some of the environmental influences were 
within the school, such as, perhaps, certain subject requirements, unsym- 
pathetic teachers, and arbitrary regulations. Others were outside the 
school and characteristic of the community or the family. These influ- 
ences operated frequently in producing a dislike for school. They 
caused the pupil to get into that state of mind which is usually described 
by saying that he "has lost interest in school work." This condition 
is not necessarily an indication that the pupil lacks the ability to do the 
work he dislikes. It may mean that he is unfitted by native endowment 
to attain more than average success in this particular kind of work, 
but it does not necessarily mean that he could not do even better than the 
average in something else. Or, it may mean that respect for education 
is not among the family traditions under which he has been nurtured. 

It has been suggested, by some who give large stress to the factor of 
heredity, that the environmental factors measured here are merely an 
objective expression — a resultant — of the heredity of these homes; and 
that an even higher correlation would be found between the general 
intellectual ability of the parents and the amount of schooling their chil- 
dren receive. It seems to the writer that the facts brought out in the 
part devoted to adopted children suggest the improbabihty of such an 
outcome. 

However, the writer will suggest how such an investigation might be 
attempted. In Urbana the social facts have already been secured and 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 99 

the investigation might well be continued there. One could visit the 
families that furnished the information for Part IV of this study. These 
parents could be tested. The tests, to answer the purpose in a practical 
way, must be simple in appUcation, as training on the part of the subject 
should not be presupposed. The results of the tests, when correlated 
with the amounts of schooling which the children received, would show 
how important the factors of heredity are, or, at least, whether heredity 
is as important as environment in determining the amounts of schooling 
the children receive. That there is a positive correlation between native 
ability and amounts of schooling received is doubtless true, but it is 
probably lower than is usually supposed. Such an investigation could 
be conducted just as well in another town as in Urbana, but it would 
then be necessary to secure the social data as well as the facts of heredity. 
A rehable comparison could not be made if one set of facts were taken 
from one town and another set from a dififerent one, for there might be 
differences in the social composition which would vitiate the results. 

3, Another conclusion which is almost a corollary of the two pre- 
ceding is that early elimination is correlated with, and largely due to, 
factors outside the school. The school is only an institution of society. 
Society has created it and uses it as needs arise. Those who unreservedly 
blame the public school for elimination forget that the school imparts 
instruction to the children alone. Their parents were educated a gen- 
eration earlier and can seldom be reached by the present-day school. 

4. Since the amounts of schooling which children receive are closely 
correlated with the advantages of the homes from which they come, it 
follows that our high schools are largely attended and probably domi- 
nated during the last two or three years by pupils from homes of culture 
and of a reasonable measure of economic advantage. The well-to-do 
business and land-owning classes send their children, but the children 
of the laborer and artisan seldom graduate. This means, then, that the 
majority of our high-school graduates is furnished by a minority of the 
population. It also suggests something of the home type of those who 
attend our colleges and universities.^ 

' The large proportionate increase in high-school enrolment revealed by statistics 
from the reports of the United States Commissioner of Education shows that these 
homes have been availing themselves of the opportunity for education to a greater 
degree each decade. Not only have more children enrolled in the pubHc high school, 
but Mr. W. S. Miller has shown that they stay longer than they did twenty-five years 
ago. (Mr. W. S. Miller's statistics are given in the Illinois Teacher, April, 1915, p. 7, 
and in School and Home Education, April, 1915, p. 282.) 



lOO THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

5, If a person wished to forecast, from a single objective measure, 
the probable educational opportunities which the children of a home 
have, the best measure would be the number of books in the home. The 
highest single correlation was shown by this index. Further, it is an 
index which is easy to apply. It is probable, however, that a detailed 
analysis of the kinds of books found, the number bought each year, and 
the number and kind read by each member of the family would be a 
better criterion, though it would be more difficult to secure such facts. 
On tlie other hand, the increased patronage of public libraries, charac- 
teristic of some cities, may alter conditions somewhat. 



SPECIFIC CONCLUSIONS 

1. There are a number of minor points which may be made the basis 
for specific conclusions. The correlation between tlie schooling of the 
father and that of the mother is one of these. This fact, which seems 
to indicate that men and women of approximately the same educational 
level tend to intermarry more often than mere chance or even propinquity 
would suggest, might be called "educational selection." This is a very 
important point when it is considered that it results in the concentrated 
transmission from one generation to the next of certain social charac- 
teristics which vary with the types of homes represented. It means that 
there is a continuity, and perhaps at times an intensification through 
generations, of the tastes, prejudices, traditions, ideals, and standards 
which make up the social life of a home, t'amily traditions and ideals 
are thus continuous although the different members of a home come and 
go; the individuals separate and form new homes, but these are much 
like the old home in social characteristics, and especially in educational 
and cultural standards. 

2. The relationship which holds true between the schooling of parents 
and the schooling of their children who are no longer in school is par- 
alleled by a similar relationship for those children who are yet in 
school. Retardation was most frequent among those children who came 
from poorly educated parents. This implies that retardation is due 
to causes outside the school similar to those which were responsible 
for elimination, and over which the school has little or no control. 
Hence it is possible that retardation is only indirectly responsible for 
elimination. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS loi 

3. Truancy on the part of children is correlated, as a rule, with igno- 
rance on the part of parents. In those cases where truancy occurred in 
the better homes, it was not followed by early elimination. This 
emphasizes the importance of the rigid enforcement of compulsory 
attendance laws. The people who most frequently violate them are 
usually those who have had a limited education or none at all and hence 
cannot appreciate its values. Their children must be protected from 
this parental ignorance, and the cumulative growth of a tradition of 
schooling must thus be insured. 

4. The conclusion that size of family alone seems to have no marked 
effect on the education of the children may be due to the fact that these 
homes (the homes studied in Part IV) are nearly all far above the poverty 
line. The addition of one or two children would probably not affect the 
standard of living much, although most of the families are small and such 
an addition would make a relatively great difference in each one's pro- 
portion of the home's resources. Another possible explanation is that 
this factor is counterbalanced by the operation of compulsory attendance 
laws which force the children of poorly educated parents — most of the 
large famihes were found in such homes — to go to school much longer 
than their parents did. 

5. The table giving the relationship between size of family and edu- 
cation of the parents reveals the fact that the population of Urbana is 
not quantitatively reproducing itself.^ Those parents who have attended 
only the elementary school have famihes which are barely large enough, 
on the average, to maintain the population. The better-educated 
famihes have only half enough children to do so. As a whole the popu- 
lation is slightly declining in numbers, except as it is increased through 
immigration. Further, it is being reproduced largely from the lower 
levels. As each level tends to reproduce its own kind socially, these facts 
have sociological importance. They indicate a condition which would 
be especially disconcerting if low social position were entirely due to 
inferior heredity and if there were no people of superior native abihty 
in the untrained masses. Fortunately, there seems to be much abihty 
in the masses which needs merely the opportunity to be trained to enable 

' It has been shown by investigation that, in any community, all families which 
have children must average four each to maintain an undiminished population. In 
Urbana the average family contains 3.62 children; see W. E. Kellicott, The Social 
Direction of Human Evolution (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1913), P- ii4- 



I02 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

its possessors to take the place of our present leaders.^ This is happen- 
ing, for the masses are being elevated educationally, as is shown by 
the fact that children in general receive more education than their 
parents. This condition is especially true of the poorly educated, for 
with them compulsory education brings this about in a marked way. It 
is conceivable, however, that, as centuries elapse, this constant reproduc- 
tion of society from the bottom will result in a greater tendency to 
mediocrity in general. If society's best are continually selected by con- 
ditions which do not allow them to reproduce their share of offspring, a 
time may come when the best will have nearly all disappeared. This 
condition is to be found in some of the backward towns of New England 
where emigration has removed the best and left the dregs. Spain gave 
her best to the New World for centuries and her present inferior position 
is often said to be the result of this. Such a degeneration will not 
necessarily result in a cessation of progress by society in general, but it 
will result in lessening the proportion of those of superior talent. Even 
if exceptional ability is the result of a happy combination of parental 
characteristics which may occur among the masses, the low birth-rate 
among the well-to-do results in a distinct loss through the gradual lapse 
of the family traditions, ideals, and standards. 

6. The education of fathers and mothers is closely correlated with 
the number of books in the home. In other words, the size of the home 
library is a measure of the dynamic effect of education. It is probable 
that the same relationships can be detected in the number and kind of 
magazines taken, the number and character of plays and entertainments 
attended, and other intellectual or social avocations, diversions, and 
recreations. 

' It must be remembered that the facts which support this conclusion have 
reference merely to the amount of schooling which children receive. They can be 
appUed to other points only in so far as the situations are analogous. The following 
quotation from the writings of one of the most prominent sociological writers of recent 
years bears upon this point: "The proposition that the lower classes of society are 

the intellectual equals of the upper classes will probably shock most minds 

Yet I do not hesitate to maintain and defend it as an abstract proposition. But, of 
course, we must imderstand what is meant by intellectual equaUty. I have taken 
pains to show that the difference in the intelUgence of the two classes is immense. 
What I insist upon is that this difference in intelligence is not due to any difference 
in intellect. It is due entirely to difference in mental equipment." — ^Lester F. Ward, 
Applied Sociology (Boston: Ginn & Co., 1906) p. 91. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 103 

INFERENCES AND SUGGESTIONS 

There are many points which were suggested by the data and by 
general impressions which were of such a nature that they could not be 
readily reduced to statistical facts. Others can be inferred from the 
study, although the figures do not prove them conclusively. A few of 
these inferences and suggestions follow: 

1. One point which is suggested by the close correlation between the 
education of parents and home conditions, but which does not lend itself 
to statistical demonstration, is that the amount of education of the 
parents is the most important and persistent factor influencing the 
schooHng of the children. Within certain limits it determines the occu- 
pation of the family breadwinner and restricts the earning power in any 
particular occupation. In a broad way, it forecasts the reading tastes 
of the parents, though the number of books in a home may be dependent 
more upon ability to buy than upon ability to enjoy. 

2. Closely related to the preceding point is a more subtle and intan- 
gible outcome which may be called appreciation of the values of an educa- 
tion. This term describes the attitude of mind in which a person decides 
whether further schooHng is worth the cost of obtaining it — cost being 
considered to mean the postponement of the satisfaction of social and 
other wants as well as economic loss. This appreciation of values serves 
as an impelling guide to both children and parents. For the child the 
values must be rather immediate to induce him to stay in school, while 
parents, with a longer life behind them, can appreciate remoter advan- 
tages. With the better-educated parents their own experiences with an 
education make them see that it was worth while to undergo the restraints 
and discomforts necessary to secure it because it made much pleasure 
possible. But the mere factor of custom or tradition is probably 
stronger than this reasoned conclusion. 

It is probable that children frequently do not appreciate the values 
of an education, but their parents do. The children then attend school 
because of parental pressure. This was clearly illustrated by some of 
the truancy cases.^ On the other hand, the child may think an education 
is worth while even though his parents do not, but this does not seem 
to be usual. In this case he may continue his education even in the face 
of discouragements. When both parents and child do not appreciate 

^ The three boys who played truant but came from the better homes were all 
in school or college when the data were gathered. 



104 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

the values of an education, school attendance will probably be continued 
only so long as society's appreciation, as expressed in compulsory atten- 
dance laws, is operative. Similarly, neighborhood and community 
appreciation of the values of school attendance may coerce the family 
and shorten or lengthen the schooling of children. This is especially true 
when this appreciation reaches the stage where it becomes the "fashion" 
to do a thing. 

These "values" may be purely economic. Education may stand for 
nothing more than increased earning power. It is probable that children 
who have given little thought to the future are less influenced by a pos- 
sible economic advantage than are their parents. A dollar looks power- 
ful to the child who never has had the privilege of spending any, and the 
allurements of the poorly paid "blind-alley" job are strong. Often the 
child does not realize that his future earning power would be greatly 
increased by a few more years in school. Parents themselves do not 
always realize it. Further, there are individual cases where more than 
a limited amount of schooling is almost a waste of time because of the 
lack of ability of those receiving it. Since the average parent reasons 
from the exception more often than from the rule, these exceptions stand 
out and have resulted in the popular notion, prevalent on certain social 
levels, that it does not "pay" to go to school. The better-educated 
parents are more likely to see the economic value of a good education 
and to compel the child to attend school. 

In other cases attendance at school is favored because of the social 
prestige which is often the lot of those who attend high school and college. 
This "value" is probably more often the guiding motive with girls than 
with boys. It is especially in evidence in the choice of certain girls' 
schools by parents. This is a remoter end which probably influences the 
parents more than the children. A similar factor is at work with the 
children where the school life, especially in the high school, is connected 
with so many social pleasures — ^parties, athletic contests, clubs, and 
fraternities — so that as a result it is far more enjoyable than the life 
outside the school. This "value" is immediate and influences the chil- 
dren more than it influences the parents. 

Another "value" is the purely intellectual pleasure which some pupils 
derive from their school work, the satisfaction of the "thirst for knowl- 
edge." There is no doubt that this is a very strong motive with certain 
pupils natively endowed with minds well fitted for intellectual work. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 105 

These various "values," economic, social, and intellectual, are not 
independent in their operation. They are nearly always combined, 
though one may predominate with one individual and a different one 
with another. They are, however, largely beyond the control of the 
pubUc school as it has been operated in the past, and will probably 
remain so in the future. When values are not recognized by the children, 
their schooHng will stop unless pressure from others — parents, friends, 
or community — prevents. 

The foregoing discussion may be summarized by saying that parents 
seldom feel the need, and frequently do not recognize the advantage, of 
much more schooling than they themselves received. When the children 
have reached a realm of knowledge of which the parents are ignorant, 
they (the parents) often remark in substance: "Johnny has a better 
education than we ever received. We have made a good living. He 
ought to be able to do the same. Let him go to work now." This is 
especially true of homes where the parents have had little schooling and 
where "a good living" means little more than the bare necessities of life. 
This attitude is frequent where the parents are poor and can be assisted 
somewhat if the children contribute a few dollars to the family income. 

3. Growing out of this appreciation of values when handed down 
through several generations is what may be called a family tradition of 
schooling. Appreciation reaches a stage where it is no longer rational 
but is a "prejudice." In such a home a child is almost as certain to 
attend school, if he keeps his health, as day is certain to follow night. 
The tradition often centers around some particular school or even a 
particular curriculum. Every child must follow the same path. Older 
brothers and sisters help the movement along and send the younger ones. 
On the other hand, it is probable that there are famiHes in which the 
opposite is true. To them education is the mark of a despised upper 
class and they and theirs will have none of it.' 

4. The fact that the economic station of a home is somewhat closely 
correlated with the schooling of the children might lead one to think that 

^ The tradition of schooling may be cumulative in its effect. The children of 
one generation may be kept in school by compulsory attendance legislation. When 
they rear famihes, however, they may desire their children to have a better education 
than they themselves received. This will lead to a gradual cumulative increase of 
family traditions of schooling. Compulsory attendance laws have been adequately 
enforced for such a brief period of time in most communities that we must wait for 
the growth of the next generation before accurate information can be obtained on 
this point. 



lo6 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

low economic status was primarily responsible for much early eKmination. 
The close interrelations of the various factors, as well as other data pre- 
sented, show that this is probably not true. Indirectly, however, it is 
probable that lack of economic resources plays an important role, espe- 
cially in bringing about elimination from the high school, where social 
stratification begins to manifest itself. A sensitive adolescent, from a 
home which could not furnish him with a clean linen collar every day, 
the newest cut in coat and trousers, and other marks of a well-to-do class, 
might prefer to leave school and go to work, in spite of all the wishes of 
his parents to the contrary, rather than face the jibes and slights of his 
schoolmates. Similarly, in poor homes, if the child is large enough to 
earn a little money, this is sufl&cient reason for him to leave school and 
contribute to the family income, although it might not be a great hard- 
ship for the parents to keep him in school a year or two longer. The 
fact that the girls averaged a year more schoohng than the boys may be 
a reflection of the low earning power of an adolescent girl, which is much 
less than that of an adolescent boy. 

5. Beginning with Ayres'^ influential study of retardation and eKmi- 
nation there has been a disposition on the part of investigators to place 
the blame for the failure and elimination of pupils upon the organization 
and administration of the school, and especially upon the school program 
of studies. Such references can be found in a number of the important 
surveys.^ It has become the fashion to ascribe the failure of the school 

^Leonard P. Ayres, Laggards in Our Schools (published by the Russell Sage 
Foundation, New York, 1909). Dr. Ayres says: "Our courses of study as at present 
constituted are fitted not to the slow or to the average child but to the unusually 
bright one." 

2 Leonard P. Ayres, A Survey of the Public Schools of Springfield, Illinois (pub- 
lished by the Russell Sage Foundation, New York City, 1914). While discussing the 
"significance of progress records" the report says (p. 55): "Quite unconsciously the 
schools of this city, like those of many other cities, have developed a course of study, 
a system of examinations and promotions, and methods of teaching — in short an 
entire school system — better fitted for the needs and requirements of the girls than 
for those of the boys. Those conditions can be remedied and their alteration is 
one of the most important tasks which confronts the schools." 

In the Report of the Survey of the Public School System of School District No. i, 
Multnomah County, Oregon, City of Portland, 191 3, in the section devoted to "needed 
reorganizations," Superintendent J. H. Francis says (p. 192): "The marked school 
death-rate in the seventh and eighth grades, to which Portland forms no exception 
(see Fig. 8, p. 150), can be accounted for by subject-matter in the course of study, 
methods of presentation, and general school conditions not congenial to early adoles- 
cence." 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 107 

to these agencies. But in Urbana retardation and elimination were 
closely correlated with home conditions, factors over which the school 
has almost no control. How then can the public school be entirely to 
blame? Many of these children are social and industrial "misfits" as 
well as "misfits" in the public school. Some of them, undoubtedly, are 
mentally subnormal. These require individual or special treatment and 
profit little, as far as society is concerned, from their training. Many 
"misfits" are handicapped by home environments, will always be 
retarded, and will furnish the most of those eliminated early in the com- 
petition of life. Though the public school may be responsible for a few 
of these "misfits," many of them are due to social and other conditions 
outside of it. Unless the activities of the pubHc school can be so extended 
as to control and direct the home and neighborhood life — something 
entirely beyond its proper sphere — slow progress and early elimination 
on the part of some are to be expected. 

6. Because of the social factors involved, the differences between 
cities with respect to retardation and elimination may not be a measure 
of the relative efficiency of their school systems at all, but may be merely 
an indication of corresponding differences in the composition of the 
population of these cities.^ A better measure of school and system 
efficiency might be furnished by the comparative improvement which 
has been made during a definite period. But such a comparison would 
have to include any changes in social conditions which may have taken 
place during that time. 

7. For similar reasons curriculum changes, such as the "six-six plan" 
and the introduction of vocational work, cannot be expected to be 
unfailing panaceas for retardation and elimination.^ Vocational work, 
appealing strongly, as it probably will, to the economic motives of 
parents and children, may lessen these evils somewhat, but it has its 

'This point was made by E. L. Thorndike in his study, "The Elimination of 
Pupils from School" (Department of the Interior; Bureau of Education, Bulletin 
No. 4, 1907). Thorndike says (pp. 14-15): "In the opinion of the author, however, 
the character of the cities' population is more important than the character of their 
educational administrations as a cause of the variability of elimination." 

=• This point has been recognized by some of those who have investigated the 
problems of vocational education. Thus David S. Hill says: "We cannot find in 
industrial training a panacea for all of our social evils." (Facts about the Public Schools 
of New Orleans in Relation to Vocation, published by the Commission Council, New 
Orleans, June, 1914.) 



lo8 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

limitations. The kinds of skills which can be imparted through the 
vocational work of any school or the schools of any one city are neces- 
sarily limited. Schools must confine their attention to the most general 
types of vocational training,^ and many of these demand a preparation 
in the educational fundamentals as a foundation. Retardation and 
elimination frequently manifest themselves before these fundamentals 
are attained. Hence vocational education is greatly restricted in its 
possible sphere. The only way to insure the more adequate training of 
these children is to keep them in school longer through compulsory legis- 
lation. It may be expedient to offer vocational training to some of them, 
but vocational training should not be introduced into the public schools 
with the expectation that it will "interest" all such children and thus 
keep them all in school longer. Social forces doom it to failure if it is 
introduced with such an expectation. 

8. The yearly influx of vast numbers of illiterate immigrants from 
southeastern Europe and western Asia is a phenomenon which may 
well be viewed with apprehension when considered in the light of the 
facts presented in this study. If these people were otherwise similar to 
the earHer immigrants in their social behavior, the absence of a tradition 
of schooling would be a serious thing. The probability of imparting 
such a prejudice to them under the conditions among which they live 
and work in this country is rather remote. From this standpoint a 
literacy test in our immigration laws might be of untold value. Studies 
of various foreign-born communities in the United States, conducted as 
this study has been, might furnish us with some very important facts 
which would aid in understanding the problems of assimilation. 

9. All the arguments and facts thus far advanced which suggest that 
retardation and eHmination are largely due to forces outside the public 
school do not justify teachers and school officials in neglecting any steps 
which will lessen retardation and elimination. These people should 
work just as faithfully as ever to adjust the schools to the needs of the 
state and of the local community. They have done much in the past 

' The impossibility of providing vocational training where specific skills must be 
taught is obvious when it is recalled that 40 of the 98 parental occupations represented 
in this study might be classed as professions and skilled or semiskilled trades. None 
of the 40 is followed by as many as 7 per cent of the fathers, and most of the occupations 
have only one or two representatives. Only those skills which are common to a num- 
ber of occupations can be taught, such as, perhaps, mechanical drawing and the 
reading of blueprints or commercial work. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 109 

and are wide awake to possibilities. These arguments and facts, how- 
ever, may be a comfort to schoohnen who have been severely criticized 
by investigators because of the amount of retardation and elimination 
present in their communities after they have done their best to 
remedy defects. 

10. Another point worthy of mention is the possible effect of the 
blind action of social pressure which keeps children in school who are 
so poorly endowed with native ability as to be unable to profit from the 
instruction. This has happened in the past and is still happening in 
many cases with the feeble-minded. They were given the same work 
as other children though unable to profit by it. In a similar way children 
probably are forced to attend the high school and even the college when 
not at all fitted for the work. They leave school unable to apply the edu- 
cation that they have had. Their failures furnish the stock arguments 
of the man in the street with respect to the uselessness of an education. 
However, no one has clearly demonstrated the existence of any consider- 
able number of these failures. Although they make comparatively little 
use of the education they have received, they may be much better off 
with it than without it. 

11. This study is, in all probability, qualitatively representative of 
conditions in the small cities and towns of Illinois and perhaps through- 
out the Middle West. It is probable that the problem may be compli- 
cated by other factors when the foreign-born part of the population of 
large cities is considered. In rural districts opportunity may play a 
much more significant role than in the cities studied. But it is probable 
that the better-educated and well-to-do classes will strive to educate 
their children although they may not always use the public school to 
attain their ends. Quantitatively, conditions are likely to vary from 
place to place and the quantitative facts given here must be re- 
stricted, when quoted, to the places from which they were secured. 

FINAL SUMMARY 

The results of the entire study may be summed up in the following 
points: 

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 

I. There is a high correlation between the economic, educational, and 
social advantages of a home and the number of years of schooling which 
its children receive. 



no THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

2. Environmental influences more often cause a child to stop attend- 
ing school than lack of ability to do the work. 

3. Early elimination is correlated with, and largely due to, social and 
hereditary factors outside the school over which the school has little or 
no control. 

4. High schools are largely attended by the children from homes of 
culture and wealth, representatives of the "better class." 

5. The number of books in a home is the best single objective index 
of the educational advantages open to the children. 

SPECIFIC CONCLUSIONS 

1. Men and women marry those who are of approximately the same 
educational level as themselves — "educational selection." 

2. Retardation is greatest, as a rule, among the children of those 
parents who are most poorly educated. 

3. Truancy is found most frequently among the children of poor 
and uneducated parents. 

4. Size of family has no appreciable effect on persistence in school. 

5. The population of Urbana, as far as birth-rate is concerned, is 
slightly declining in numbers, and most of the renewal comes from the 
less-educated half. 

6. The number of books in a home is closely correlated with the 
schooling of the parents. 

INFERENCES AND SUGGESTIONS 

1. The education of the parents, as a rule, ultimately determines the 
educational advantages opened to the children. 

2. Appreciation of the values of an education is probably lacking in 
the homes where the children are eliminated early from school. 

3. A family tradition of schooling is probably very effective in indu- 
cing unusual persistence in school in some cases. 

4. Low economic status is probably an important indirect factor in 
early elimination. 

5. The popular notion, which places the responsibility upon the 
public school for the marked elimination which is commonly found, does 
not allow for the operation of powerful social factors outside the school, 
in comparison with which the influence of the public school is almost 
insignificant. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS lii 

6. The amounts of retardation and elimination present in a school 
system are not necessarily measures of the efficiency of that system, for 
these phenomena may be due to the operation of factors outside the 
public school. 

7. Curriculum changes cannot be expected to counteract some of 
the social forces which produce elimination. 

8. The influx of large numbers of immigrants who have no family 
traditions of schooHng is a phenomenon which may presage unde- 
sirable consequences. 

9. Educators who have been blamed for inefficiency because of the 
retardation and elimination found in their schools can find facts presented 
here which show that investigators of school conditions have sometimes 
overlooked important social factors. 

10. Social pressure sometimes keeps children in school who cannot 
profit by the work given. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY^ 

RETARDATION AND ELIMINATION 

Ayres, Leonard P. A Survey of the Public Schools of Springfield, Illinois. 
New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1914. 

. "A Simple System for Discovering Some Factors Influencing Non- 
Promotion," Psychological Clinic, IV (1910-11), 189-92. 

Gives a few data on home conditions correlated with non-promotion. 

. Laggards in Our Schools, A Study of Retardation and Elimination in 

City Systems. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1909. 

. "Some Factors Affecting Grade Distribution," Psychological Clinic, 

II (1908-9), 121-33. 

Ayres discusses the factors of death, increase of population, retardation, and 
elimination as they affect the enrolment of the higher grades. The following sig- 
nificant quotation is found in this article: "Dr. Thomdike reaches the conclusion 
that the amount of elimination is comparatively unrelated to the efficiency of the 
school system and deprecates any inferences as to the latter from the rate of 
elimination which results from his studies. Our studies have led us to similar 
results in comparing the grade inequalities of different cities." 

. "The Effect of Physical Defects on School Progress," Psychological 

Clinic, III (May 15, 1909), 71-77. 

" In general, children suffering from physical defects are found to make 8 . 8 per 
cent less progress than do children having no physical defects." 

. "Irregular Attendance — A Cause of Retardation," Psychological 

Clinic, III (March 15, 1909), 1-8. 

"Such figures as are available indicate that in our cities less than three-fourths 
of the children continue in attendance as much as three-fourths of the year. 
Retardation results in elimination." 

. "The Relation between Physical Defects and School Progress," 



American Physical Education Review, XV (June, 1910), 289-95. 

' This bibliography attempts to give a complete list of the better-known literature 
which deals with the quahtative side of retardation and elimination. References 
which are confined to the quantitative side of the subject alone are not included. 
Much excellent material can be found in city-school or board of education reports, 
but these reports have only a limited circulation. Hence they are not included. All 
articles or books that have been referred to in the study are included. The author 
hopes to prepare a comprehensive review of this Uterature for publication in some 
educational journal in the near future. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 113 

Bache, Joseph A. "Delinquency and the Responsibility of the School 
toward It," N.E.A. Proceedings, 1909, pp. icoi-5. 

A theoretical discussion; gives the three primary causes of delinquency as 
heredity, environment, and association. 

Balliet, Thomas M. Discussion, N.E.A. Proceedings, 1903, pp. 800-801. 
Bevard, Katherine H. "Progress of the Repeaters of the Class of 1912 of 

the Public Schools of Washington, D.C.," Psychological Clinic, VII 

(1913-14), 68-83. 

This study gives some of the reputed causes of repeating, but does not tell 

how the data were secured. Hence it is obscure. 

Bliss, D. C. "Retardation," Journal of Education, LXXV (Boston, 1912), 

556. 

Says "one of the best indices of the degree of efficiency attained is the 
percentage of retardation, or the percentage of over-age children." 

Book, W. F. "Why Pupils Drop Out of the High School," Pedagogical 
Seminary, XI (1904), 204-32. 

A careful and extensive study of motives for leaving school. 

Brooks, Stratton D, "Causes of Withdrawal from School," Educational 
Review, XXVI (1903), 362-93. 

A study of 1,200 boys and girls who left school. The causes were roughly 
divided into twelve classes. Most of them were social. Poverty was foimd to 
be but a slight factor. 

. "Relation of Temperament to Withdrawal from School," School 

Review, X (1902), 446-55. 

This article gives a number of non-c\u:riculum causes of withdrawal from 
school. 

Bryan, James E. "A Method of Determining the Extent and Causes of 
Retardation in a School System," Psychological Clinic, I (April 15, 1907), 
42-52. 

BuRK, Caroline F. "Promotion of Bright and Slow Children," Educational 
Review, XIX (1900), 296-302. 

This article reports data which show that health has Uttle bearing on retarda- 
tion; irregular attendance and low mentality much. 

Cameron, Norman C. "Relation of Retardation to Attendance," Penn- 
sylvania School Journal, LIX (September, 1910), 127-31. 

. "A New Method for Determining Rate of Progress in a Small 

School System," Psychological Clinic, V (1911-12), 251-64. 

This is a study of school histories and presents a very comprehensive view of 
retardation and ehmination. Mr. Cameron says in his conclusion: "An accumu- 
lation of gathering forces, as the pupil wends his way along the school course, is 
the real cause of leaving. The home and school and society in general are all 
more or less responsible for the final outcome, leaving school." 



114 TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

Campbell, Everett Eveleth. "A Study of Retardation and Class Standing 
on the Basis of Home Language Used by Pupils," Elementary School 
Teacher, XIV (1913-14), 262-82, 331-47. 

This study shows that the use of a foreign language is not of sufficient 
importance to be considered as one of the causes of retardation. 

Carr, J. W. Discussion, N.E.A. Proceedings, 1903, pp. 798-800. 

CoRNMAN, Oliver P. "The Retardation of the Pupils of Five City School 

Systems," Psychological Clinic, I (1907-8), 245-57. 

This is a comparative study of five eastern cities which gives a number of 

the causes of retardation. The data do not warrant all of the conclusions, 

however. 

Dearborn, W. F, "Qualitative Elimination from School," Elementary 
School Teacher, X (September, 1910), 1-13. 

" If this is so, we may be justified in concluding that, with the exception of the 
elimination of the first few years of school, the pupils who drop out are as a 
group very nearly as well quahfied for further study as those who remain 
throughout the course of study in the high school and imiversity." 

Ellis, A. Caswell. "The Percentage of Boys Who Leave the High School 
and the Reasons Therefor," N.E.A. Proceedings, 1903, pp. 793-98. 

Elwood, Dewitt, Taylor, E.H., and Wiley, J. F. "A Study of Retardation 
and Elimination in Certain Schools of Eastern Illinois, with a Considera- 
tion of the Causes," School and Home Education, XXXII (1912-13), 

147-53- 

The main causes for retardation given were late entrance, irregular attend- 
ance, lack of abiUty, poor physical conditions, and indifference. These include 
about 85 per cent of the causes of retardation. The main causes of ehmination 
were to go to work, iU health, removal, failure in studies, and indifference. 

EwiNG, E. F. "Retardation and Elimination in the Public Schools," Educa- 
tional Review, XL VI (1913), 252-72. 

This study suggests that differences between the two cities studied may be 
due to differences in composition of population. Social causes, such as neghgent 
parents and moving, are given as responsible for much retardation and elimination. 

Falkner, Roland P. "Retardation: Its Significance and Its Measure- 
ment," Educational Review XXXVIII (1909), 122-31. 

The writer states that the causes of retardation were then unknown. 

. "Some Further Considerations upon the Retardation of the Pupils 

of Five City School Systems," Psychological Clinic, II (1908-9), 57-74. 

This article criticizes Cornman's paper, which was presented in the first 
volume of the Psychological Clinic. 

. " Elimination of Pupils from School : A Review of Recent Investiga- 



tions," Psychological Clinic, II (1908-9), 255-75. 

This article is devoted mainly to Thomdike's elimination study. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS II5 

Gay, George E. "Why PupUs Leave the High School without Graduatmg," 

Education, XXII (1901-2), 300-307. 
Gaylor, G. W, "A Further Study of Retardation," School and Home Educa- 
tion, XXIX (1909-10), 310-13. 

"The majority of the retarded are average pupils without physical defects 
and of ordinary intelligence." 

. "Elimination and Vocational Training," Psychological Clinic, VI 

(1912-13), 69-73. 

A theoretical discussion of the question of ehmination. 
"Elimination from a Different Angle," Psychological Clinic, VII 



(1913-14), 11-16. 

This article shows how a change in the spirit of a school made for much 
greater persistence in school. A careful consideration of failures led to a decreased 
elimination. 
GossETT, J. O. "Retardation in the Schools of Stockton, California," Psycho- 
logical Clinic, V (1911-12), 149-57. 

IlUterate parents furnished more than their share of the children f oimd in the 
first three grades. Those wards of the city which had a low social level produced 
an abnormal amoiuit of retardation. The children of very rich and very poor were 
more often retarded than were those from homes of average wealth. 

Greenwood, James M. "Report on High-School Statistics," N.E.A. Pro- 
ceedings, 1900, pp. 340-51. 

Gives specific reasons which pupils gave for leaving school. 

. "Retardation of Pupils in Their Studies and How to Minimize It," 

N.E.A. Proceedings, 1909, pp. 182-86. 

In addition to a theoretical discussion there is the report of the investigation 
of the progress of 1,957 pupils through school. Out of a total of 716 pupils who 
took more than the scheduled time to complete the work, at least 518 were 
retarded on account of conditions for which the school was not responsible. 
Sickness was the most potent retardation factor. 

. " Some Thoughts on the Retardation of Pupils in Their Studies and 

How to Minimize It," School and Home Education, XXVIII (1908-9), 

247-51- 

. "Retardation of Pupils in Their Studies and How to Minimize It," 

Journal of Education, LXIX (Boston, 1909), 260-62. 

"Retardation of Pupils in Their Studies and How to Minimize It," 



Educational Review, XXXVII (April, 1909), 342-48. 
GuLiCK, L. H. "Why 250,000 ChUdren Quit School," World's Work, XX 

(August, 1910), 13,385-13,289. 

Places the blame on the public school. 
GuLiCK, L. H., AND Ayres, L. p. Medical Inspection of Schools. New York: 

Russell Sage Foundation, 1908. 



Il6 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

Henmon, V. A. C. "Retardation, Acceleration, and Class Standing," Ele- 
mentary School Teacher, XIV (1913-14), 283-94. 

This is a study of 2,023 pupils. It shows but little relation between progress 
in school and class standing. 

Hill, David S. Facts about the Public School of New Orleans in Relation to 
Vocation. New Orleans: Published by Commission Council, June, 1914. 

HiNES, L. N, "A Study in Retardation," Journal oj Education, LXXV 
(Boston, 1912), 400-401. 
Gives a detailed discussion of the causes of retardation. 

HoLLEY, C. E. "The Influence of Family Income and Other Factors on High 
School Attendance," School and Home Education, XXXIII (February, 
1914), 222-24. 

Johnson, George R. "Qualitative Elimination from High Schools," School 
Review, XVIII (1910), 680-94. 

Those who were eliminated did poorer work, on the average, than those who 
remained in school. Many "bright" pupils were eliminated, however. 

Johnson, Ralph L. "Irregular Attendance in the Primary Grades," Psycho- 
logical Clinic, III (July 15, 1909), 89-95. 

"A very important cause for retardation in the primary grades is inadequate 
and irregular attendance." 

Johnston, T. Edward. "Elimination in the High School," American School- 
master, Vlll (March, 1915), 121-26. 

The causes of the elimination of 200 high-school pupils are given. As classi- 
fied, more than two-thirds are factors outside the school. 

Keyes, Charles Henry. Progress through the Grades of City Schools. New 
York: Teachers College, 191 1. 

Law, Frederick H. " The Age at Which Children Leave School, ' ' Educational 
Review, XV (1898), 40-49. 

A discussion of the extent and causes of withdrawals from some of the New 
York City schools. 

LUCKEY, G. W. A. "Can We Eliminate the School Laggard?" N.E.A. 
Proceedings, 191 1, pp. 1046-51. 

This writer suggests a list of causes which make it very hard to control the 
situation. 

Miller, Charles A. A. J. "Progress and Retardation of a Baltimore Class," 
Psychological Clinic, XXXI (October 15, 1909), 136-40. 

Dr. Miller protests against "the comparative statistics of retardation, which 
do not take into consideration the character of the population, the attitude of the 
people toward the public schools, and the enforcement of compulsory attendance 
laws." 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 117 

Miller, W. S. Mr. Miller's comparative statistics on high-school enrolment 
in Illinois are given in an editorial in School and Home Education, XXXIV 
(AprU, 1915), 382. 

MissiMER, H. G. "Are the Schools Responsible for Retardation?" Psycho- 
logical Clinic, IV (1910), 28-32. 

This article gives a number of social and economic causes of retardation. 

Morton, W. H. S. "Retardation in Nebraska," Psychological Clinic, VI 
(1912-13), 181-97, 222-28. 

This study reports the repUes of 107 school superintendents, answers to ques- 
tions on the causes of elinunation from the elementary school. A long list of 
causes is given. 

Neighbours, Owen J. "Retardation in the Schools and Some of the Causes," 
Elementary School Teacher, XI (1910-11), 119-35. 

Shows that homes which have the advantage of superior financial, educa- 
tional, and moral conditions furnish the fewest retarded children. 

Payne, I. D. "Retardation in the Schools of Palo Alto," Psychological Clinic, 
V (1911-12), 139-48. 

This study gives a few data on the home conditions of the retarded. A large 
percentage of the retarded have abnormal homes. 

Phillips, Byron A. " Retardation in the Elementary Schools of Philadelphia," 
Psychological Clinic, VI (1912-13), 79-90. 

This study considered the city by wards and related the conditions in the 
the school to the social conditions outside of it. The conclusions place consider- 
able stress upon the influence of home conditions. 

Report of Board of Public Schools, St. Louis. 1894-95, 1895-96, 191 1. 

Report of the Commissioner of Education, "Retardation and Acceleration in 
City Schools," II (1909), 1343. 

This article suggests that population differences may be partly responsible 
for differences in these phenomena. 

Report of the Survey of the Public School System of School District No. i, Mult- 
nomah Co., Oregon, City of Portland, 1913. 

Schmidt, Clara. "Retardation Statistics of Three Chicago Schools," Ele- 
mentary School Teacher, X (1909-10), 478-92. 

This writer blames the course of study for the retardation, though there are 
no facts which support the conclusion. 

Sheldon, Winthrop Dudley. "A Neglected Cause of Retardation," 
Educational Review, XL (1910), 1 21-31. 

A theoretical discussion of the importance of large primary classes in causing 
retardation. 



Il8 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

SOLDAN, F. Louis. "Age of Withdrawal from School," Annual Report of 
Superintendent of Public Schools, Forty-first Annual Report of St. Louis 
Public Schools, 1895, pp. 37-49. 

This study compares elimination in St. Louis, Chicago, and Boston and 
attempts to give some of the causes. 

Squire, Carrie A. "Our Responsibility for Retardation," Psychological 
Clinic, IV (April 15, 19 10), 46-53. 

"Late entrance seems to be the largest factor in causing retardation among 
oxu: pupils." 

Strayer, George D. "Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges," 
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, 191 1, Bulletin No. 5. 

Synopsis of the Finding of the Vocational Education Survey of the City of Rich- 
mond by the General Survey Committee. New York: Published by the 
National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, 1914. 

Thorndike, E. L. "The Elimination of Pupils from School," Department of 
the Interior, Bureau of Education, 1907, Bulletin No. 4. 

. "Repeaters in the Upper Grammar Grades," Elementary School 

Teacher, X (1909-10), 409-14. 

Shows that poor scholarship does not necessarily resvdt in elimination. 

TwiTMYER, G. W. "Clinical Studies of Retarded Children," Psychological 
Clinic, 1 (1907-8), 97-103. 

Studying 1,487 retarded children, Twitmyer found that 83 per cent showed 
physical or mental defects. Many were improved by operations for physical 
defects. 

Van Denburg, J. K. Causes of the Elimination of Pupils in Public Secondary 
Schools. New York: Published by Teachers CoUege, 191 2. 

Wagner, Alvin E. "Retardation and Elimination in the Schools of Mauch 
Chunk Township," Psychological Clinic, III (1909), 164-73. 

Wither, Lightner, "Retardation through Neglect in Children of the Rich," 

Psychological Clinic, I (1907), 157-74. 

An interesting case laid to lack of proper early training. 

Woodward, Calvin M. "When and Why Pupils Leave School," United States 
Bureau of Education, Report of the Commissioner of Education for the 
Year i8gg-igoo, II, 1364-74. 

This writer gives poverty as one of the main causes of elimination. He 
rejects the explanation which puts the major responsibility on the teaching corps. 

. "At What Age Do Pupils Withdraw from the Public Schools?" 

Report of Commissioner of Education, i8g4-g5, II, 1 161-70. 



PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL AND HOME CONDITIONS 119 

TRUANCY AND DELINQUENCY^ 

Hall, Bert. "Truancy: A Few Causes and a Few Cures," N.E.A. Proceed- 
ings, 1909, pp. 217-22. 

This study emphasizes the importance of home and commimity environment 
as causes'of truancy. "More than 80 per cent of truancy is the result of indiffer- 
ent or negligent parents." 

HoBBS, W. W., Parsons, E. Dudley, Holbrook, D. H., Shepherd, W. H. 
"Report of the Survey Committee of the Schoolmasters' Club of Minne- 
apolis. An Inquiry into the Causes of Student Delinquency," School 
Review, XX (191 2), 593-612. 

The committee found a variety of bad home and commimity conditions 
prevalent. The children who were deUnquent were away from home much of the 
time and frequently attended questionable amusements. 

Huntington, Edward A. "A Juvenile Delinquent," Psychological Clinic, 
I (1907), 21-24. 

A case of delinquency plainly due to bad home environment. 

RiCHMAN, Julia. "What Share of the Blame for the Increase in the Num- 
bers of Truants and Incorrigibles Belongs to the School?" N.E.A . Pro- 
ceedings, 1909, pp. 222-32. 

The writer says: "Most investigators and educators lay the heaviest share 
of the blame to unfavorable home conditions." She shows how the school may 
help in some cases by looking after the neglected sides of the child's life. 

Report of Board of Education, city of Chicago, 1909. 

OTHER REFERENCES 

Kellicott, William E. The Social Direction of Human Evolution (New York : 
D. Appleton & Co.), p. 115, Table II, "Fertility in Pathological and 

Normal Stocks." 

Pearson, Karl. The Groundwork of Eugenics. University of London: 
Galton Laboratory for National Eugenics, 1909. 

" Fifty per cent of population produce 75 per cent of offspring. Twenty-five 
per cent of population produce 50 per cent of offspring." 

Thorndike, E. L. Menial and Social Measurements. New York: Published 
by Teachers College, 1913. 

Ward, Lester F. Applied Sociology. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1906. 

Whipple, G. M. Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. 2d Ed., Part I, 
"Simpler Processes." Baltimore: Warwick & York, 1914. 

^ A few pertinent references only are given. 



VITA 

The writer was born at Maiden, Illinois, June 4, 1887. His public- 
school education was obtained in the Graham School of Chicago, Illinois, 
and in the Franklin Grove (Illinois) public school, he having graduated 
from the high school of the latter place in 1904. His college and graduate 
work have been completed at the Northern Illinois State Normal School, 
DeKalb (a graduate of the class of 1908), and at the University of 
Illinois (A.B. 1912; A.M. 1913). 

The writer was a Scholar in Education at the University of Illinois 
during 1912-13 and a Fellow in Education during I9i3-i4and 1914-15. 
He is a member of Kappa Delta Pi, Phi Delta Kappa, and Sigma Xi. 

The teaching experience of the writer consists of one year as a rural 
teacher, one term as a sixth-grade teacher in the Normal Training School 
at DeKalb, one term as assistant critic in the same school; two years as 
superintendent and principal of the Newark (IlHnois) public school, and 
eight weeks as Assistant in Education, summer session, University of 
Illinois, 1 9 14. 

The following articles have been published by the writer: "The 
Influence of Family Incomes and Other Factors on High School Attend- 
ance," School and Home Education, February, 1914; "Parental Opinions 
as the Basis for Vocational Readjustment," Illinois Teacher, February, 
1915; and "Curriculum Differentiation and Administration in Typical 
High Schools," Journal of Educational Administration and Supervision, 
May, 1915. 




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